Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Bremner JD, Walker JD, Whitfield C, Perry BD, Dube SR, Giles WH (2006) The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 256(3):174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bick J, Nelson CA (2016) Early adverse experiences and the developing brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 41(1):177–196. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.252

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Derks NA, Krugers HJ, Hoogenraad CC, Joels M, Sarabdjitsingh RA (2016) Effects of early life stress on synaptic plasticity in the developing Hippocampus of male and female rats. PLoS ONE 11(10):e0164551. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164551

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lupien SJ, McEwen BS, Gunnar MR, Heim C (2009) Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(6):434–445. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2639

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pechtel P, Pizzagalli DA (2011) Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology 214(1):55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weder N, Zhang H, Jensen K, Yang BZ, Simen A, Jackowski A, Lipschitz D, Douglas-Palumberi H et al (2014) Child abuse, depression, and methylation in genes involved with stress, neural plasticity, and brain circuitry. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 53(4):417-424e415. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.12.025

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Campbell JA, Walker RJ, Egede LE (2016) Associations between adverse childhood experiences, high-risk behaviors, and morbidity in Adulthood. Am J Prev Med 50(3):344–352. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2015.07.022

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nanni V, Uher R, Danese A (2012) Childhood maltreatment predicts unfavorable course of illness and treatment outcome in depression: a meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry 169(2):141–151. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11020335

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau (2024) Child maltreatment 2022. Available from https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/data-research/child-maltreatment

Felitti VJ, Anda RF, Nordenberg D, Williamson DF, Spitz AM, Edwards V, Koss MP, Marks JS (1998) Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. Am J Prev Med 14(4):245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0749-3797(98)00017-8

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Holman DM, Ports KA, Buchanan ND, Hawkins NA, Merrick MT, Metzler M, Trivers KF (2016) The Association between adverse childhood experiences and risk of Cancer in Adulthood: a systematic review of the literature. Pediatrics 138(Suppl 1):S81–S91. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-4268L

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lopes S, Hallak JEC, Machado de Sousa JP, Osorio FL (2020) Adverse childhood experiences and chronic lung diseases in adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol 11(1):1720336. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1720336

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Loria AS, Ho DH, Pollock JS (2014) A mechanistic look at the effects of adversity early in life on cardiovascular disease risk during adulthood. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 210(2):277–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/apha.12189

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Low CA, Salomon K, Matthews KA (2009) Chronic life stress, cardiovascular reactivity, and subclinical cardiovascular disease in adolescents. Psychosom Med 71(9):927–931. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3181ba18ed

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rich-Edwards JW, Spiegelman D, Lividoti Hibert EN, Jun HJ, Todd TJ, Kawachi I, Wright RJ (2010) Abuse in childhood and adolescence as a predictor of type 2 diabetes in adult women. Am J Prev Med 39(6):529–536. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2010.09.007

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Calvete E (2014) Emotional abuse as a predictor of early maladaptive schemas in adolescents: contributions to the development of depressive and social anxiety symptoms. Child Abuse Negl 38(4):735–746. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.014

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chapman DP, Whitfield CL, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Edwards VJ, Anda RF (2004) Adverse childhood experiences and the risk of depressive disorders in adulthood. J Affect Disord 82(2):217–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2003.12.013

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Famularo R, Kinscherff R, Fenton T (1992) Psychiatric diagnoses of maltreated children: preliminary findings. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31(5):863–867. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199209000-00013

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gartland N, Rosmalen JGM, O’Connor DB (2022) Effects of childhood adversity and cortisol levels on suicidal ideation and behaviour: results from a general population study. Psychoneuroendocrinology 138:105664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2022.105664

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

LeMoult J, Humphreys KL, Tracy A, Hoffmeister JA, Ip E, Gotlib IH (2020) Meta-analysis: exposure to early life stress and risk for depression in childhood and adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 59(7):842–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.10.011

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Oginga FO, Mpofana T (2023) The impact of early life stress and schizophrenia on motor and cognitive functioning: an experimental study. Front Integr Neurosci 17:1251387. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnint.2023.1251387

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Gutierrez-Rojas L, Porras-Segovia A, Dunne H, Andrade-Gonzalez N, Cervilla JA (2020) Prevalence and correlates of major depressive disorder: a systematic review. Braz J Psychiatry 42(6):657–672. https://doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2020-0650

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Al-Harbi KS (2012) Treatment-resistant depression: therapeutic trends, challenges, and future directions. Patient Prefer Adherence 6:369–388. https://doi.org/10.2147/PPA.S29716

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jaffe DH, Rive B, Denee TR (2019) The humanistic and economic burden of treatment-resistant depression in Europe: a cross-sectional study. BMC Psychiatry 19(1):247. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2222-4

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khan A, Brown WA (2015) Antidepressants versus placebo in major depression: an overview. World Psychiatry 14(3):294–300. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20241

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nelson J, Klumparendt A, Doebler P, Ehring T (2017) Childhood maltreatment and characteristics of adult depression: meta-analysis. Br J Psychiatry 210(2):96–104. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.115.180752

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chandley MJ, Ordway GA (2012) Noradrenergic dysfunction in depression and suicide. In: Dwivedi Y (ed) The neurobiological basis of suicide. Frontiers in Neuroscience. Boca Raton (FL)

Google Scholar 

Goddard AW, Ball SG, Martinez J, Robinson MJ, Yang CR, Russell JM, Shekhar A (2010) Current perspectives of the roles of the central norepinephrine system in anxiety and depression. Depress Anxiety 27(4):339–350. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20642

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Leonard BE (1997) Noradrenaline in basic models of depression. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 7(Suppl 1):S11-16; discussion S71-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0924-977x(97)00415-x

Cottingham C, Chen H, Chen Y, Peng Y, Wang Q (2011) Genetic variations of alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors illuminate the diversity of receptor functions. Curr Top Membr 67:161–190. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384921-2.00008-2

Article  CAS  PubMed