Continuous Glucose Monitoring Systems Can Meet the Challenge of Glucose Management and Beyond in Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes: An Expert Multidisciplinary Position

Sun H, Saeedi P, Karuranga S, et al. IDF diabetes atlas: global, regional and country-level diabetes prevalence estimates for 2021 and projections for 2045. Diabetes Res Clin Pr. 2022;183:109119.

Article  Google Scholar 

World Health Organization: diabetes—key facts. 2023. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes. Accessed 27 June 2025.

Wagenknecht LE, Lawrence JM, Isom S, et al. Trends in incidence of youth-onset type 1 and type 2 diabetes in the USA, 2002–18: results from the population-based SEARCH for Diabetes in Youth study. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2023;11:242–50.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nesto RW, Libby P. Diabetes mellitus and the cardiovascular system. In: Braunwald E, Zipes DP, Libby P, editors. Heart disease: a textbook of cardiovascular medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders. 2001.

Dicker D, Nguyen G, Abate D, et al. Global, regional, and national age-sex-specific mortality and life expectancy, 1950–2017: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017. Lancet. 2018;392:1684–735.

Article  Google Scholar 

Yudkin JS. “Prediabetes”: are there problems with this label? Yes, the label creates further problems! Diabetes Care. 2016;39:1468–71.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gumprecht J. Diabetes Diagnostics: Challenges, Recommendations. In. Development of Therapy in Diabetology. Innovations, Patient needs, System Solutions. A Report from the Polish Diabetes Association 2022. Modern Healthcare Institute, Warsaw. 2022.

Kokoszka-Paszkot J. Challenges in the management of diabetes in elderly patients. Lekarz POZ. 2018;4:313–9.

Google Scholar 

Urina-Jassir M, Herrera-Parra LJ, Vargas JAH, Valbuena-García AM, Acuña-Merchán L, Urina-Triana M. The effect of comorbidities on glycemic control among Colombian adults with diabetes mellitus: a longitudinal approach with real-world data. BMC Endocr Disord. 2021;21:128.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bazmandegan G, Abbasifard M, Nadimi AE, Alinejad H, Kamiab Z. Cardiovascular risk factors in diabetic patients with and without metabolic syndrome: a study based on the Rafsanjan cohort study. Sci Rep. 2023;13:559.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sarwar N, Gao P, Seshasai SRK, et al. Diabetes mellitus, fasting blood glucose concentration, and risk of vascular disease: a collaborative meta-analysis of 102 prospective studies. Lancet. 2010;375:2215–22.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Aroda VR, Eckel RH. Reconsidering the role of glycaemic control in cardiovascular disease risk in type 2 diabetes: a 21st century assessment. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022;24:2297–308.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Khaw K-T, Wareham N, Bingham S, Luben R, Welch A, Day N. Association of hemoglobin A1c with cardiovascular disease and mortality in adults: the European prospective investigation into cancer in Norfolk. Ann Intern Med. 2004;141:413–20.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ratter JM, Rooijackers HMM, Tack CJ, et al. Proinflammatory effects of hypoglycemia in humans with or without diabetes. Diabetes. 2017;66:1052–61.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ratter JM, Rooijackers HMM, Jacobs CWM, de Galan BE, Tack CJ, Stienstra R. Hypoglycaemia induces recruitment of non-classical monocytes and cytotoxic lymphocyte subsets in type 1 diabetes. Diabetologia. 2018;61:2069–71.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Iqbal A, Storey RF, Ajjan RA. Prolonged inflammatory response post-hypoglycemia: mechanistic insights into the relationship between low glucose and cardiovascular risk. Diabetes. 2022;71:2483–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ali AAG, Niinuma SA, Moin ASM, Atkin SL, Butler AE. The role of platelets in hypoglycemia-induced cardiovascular disease: a review of the literature. Biomolecules. 2023;13:241.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schubert A, Czech M. Advancements in diabetes care in Poland. J Health Policy Outcomes Res. 2023;42–7. http://jhpor.com/article/2328-advance-ments-in-diabetes-care-in-poland. Accessed 27 June 2025.

Mastalerz-Migas A. Standards of diabetes management in primary care, taking into consideration co-ordinated care. Lekarz POZ (General Practicioner). 2022;6:395–9.

Google Scholar 

Araszkiewicz A, Budzyński A, Cyganek K, et al. Clinical recommendations for the management of people with diabetes 2024. Position statement of the Polish Diabetes Association. Curr Top Diabetes. 2024;2023(3):1–140.

Google Scholar 

Li H. Revisiting the strategies for the pharmacological management of type 2 diabetes—from glycemic control, organ protection, safety to weight reduction. J Diabetes Investig. 2022;13:3–5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Flood D, Edwards E, Giovannini D, et al. Integrating hypertension and diabetes management in primary health care settings: HEARTS as a tool. Rev Panam Salud Publica 2022;46:e150.

Marx N, Federici M, Schütt K, et al. 2023 ESC Guidelines for the management of cardiovascular disease in patients with diabetes. Eur Heart J. 2023;44:4043–140.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Dąbrowski M. Polish Diabetes Association 2024 guidelines, or cardiovascular and renal protection with background metabolism. Lekarz POZ (General Practicioner). 2024;10:1–11.

Google Scholar 

Bailey TS, Walsh J, Stone JY. Emerging technologies for diabetes care. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2018;20:S278–84.

Article  Google Scholar 

Daly A, Hovorka R. Technology in the management of type 2 diabetes: present status and future prospects. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2021;23:1722–32.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Gross TM, Bode BW, Einhorn D, et al. Performance evaluation of the MiniMed® continuous glucose monitoring system during patient home use. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2000;2:49–56.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Reddy N, Verma N, Dungan K, et al. Monitoring technologies—continuous glucose monitoring, mobile technology, biomarkers of glycemic control. In: Feingold KR, Blackman MR, editors. Endotext [Internet]. South Dartmouth (MA): MDText.com; 2023. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK279046. Accessed 24 June 2025

Gonzales WV, Mobashsher AT, Abbosh A. The progress of glucose monitoring—a review of invasive to minimally and non-invasive techniques. Devices Sens Sens. 2019;19:800.

Google Scholar 

Cyganek K. The use of continuous glycaemic monitoring in patients with diabetes—a review of available systems. Diabetes Prakt. 2010;11:167–72.

Google Scholar 

Klonoff DC. Overview of fluorescence glucose sensing: a technology with a bright future. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2012;6:1242–50.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mihai DA, Stefan DS, Stegaru D, et al. Continuous glucose monitoring devices: a brief presentation (review). Exp Ther Med. 2022;23:174.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Holzer R, Bloch W, Brinkmann C. Continuous glucose monitoring in healthy adults—possible applications in health care, wellness, and sports. Sensors. 2022;22:2030.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rodacki M, Calliari LE, Ramalho AC, et al. Using trend arrows in continuous glucose monitoring systems for insulin adjustment in clinical practice: Brazilian Diabetes Society Position Statement. Diabetol Metab Syndr. 2021;13:2.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Clark TL, Polonsky WH, Soriano EC. The potential impact of continuous glucose monitoring use on diabetes-related attitudes and behaviors in adults with type 2 diabetes: a qualitative investigation of the patient experience. Diabetes Technol Ther. 2024;26:700–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Heinemann L, Schoemaker M, Schmelzeisen-Redecker G, et al. Benefits and limitations of MARD as a performance parameter for continuous glucose monitoring in the interstitial space. J Diabetes Sci Technol. 2020;14:135–50.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

ElSayed NA, Aleppo G, Aroda VR, et al. 6. Glycemic targets: standards of care in diabetes—2023. Diabetes Care. 2023;46:97–110.

Article  Google Scholar 

Gomez-Peralta F, Choudhary P, Cosson E, Irace C, Rami-Merhar B, Seibold A. Understanding the clinical implications of differences between GMI and HbA1c. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022;24:599–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/dom.14638.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Battelino T, Danne T, Bergenstal RM, et al. Clinical targets for continuous glucose monitoring data interpretation: recommendations from the international consensus on time in range. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:1593–603.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

El Malahi A, Elsen MV, Charleer S, et al. Relationship between time in range, glycemic variability, HbA1c, and complications in adults with type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2022:107:e570-81.

Comments (0)

No login
gif