Male, V. SARS-CoV-2 infection and COVID-19 vaccination in pregnancy. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 22, 277–282 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Blakeway, H. et al. COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy: coverage and safety. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. 226, 236.e231–236.e214 (2022).

Article  Google Scholar 

ACOG. COVID-19 Vaccines and Pregnancy: Conversation Guide. https://www.acog.org/covid-19/covid-19-vaccines-and-pregnancy-conversation-guide-for-clinicians (2022).

Halasa, N. B. et al. Effectiveness of maternal vaccination with mRNA COVID-19 vaccine during pregnancy against COVID-19-associated hospitalization in infants aged <6 months—17 states, July 2021–January 2022. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 71, 264–270 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pratama, N. R. et al. mRNA Covid-19 vaccines in pregnancy: a systematic review. PLoS One 17, e0261350 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jorgensen, S. C. J. et al. Maternal mRNA covid-19 vaccination during pregnancy and delta or omicron infection or hospital admission in infants: test negative design study. BMJ 380, e074035 (2023).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guedalia, J. et al. Maternal hybrid immunity and risk of infant COVID-19 hospitalizations: national case-control study in Israel. Nat. Commun. 15, 2846 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

CDC. Trends in United States COVID-19 Hospitalizations, Deaths, Emergency Department (ED) Visits, and Test Positivity by Geographic Area. https://covid.cdc.gov/covid-data-tracker/#trends_dailycases (2024).

Adhikari, E. H. et al. COVID-19 cases and disease severity in pregnancy and neonatal positivity associated with delta (B.1.617.2) and omicron (B.1.1.529) variant predominance. JAMA 327, 1500–1502 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hamid, S. et al. COVID-19-associated hospitalizations among U.S. infants aged <6 Months—COVID-NET, 13 states, June 2021–August 2022. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 71, 1442–1448 (2022).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shi, R. et al. A human neutralizing antibody targets the receptor-binding site of SARS-CoV-2. Nature 584, 120–124 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Du, L. et al. The spike protein of SARS-CoV— a target for vaccine and therapeutic development. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 7, 226–236 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cao, Y. et al. Omicron escapes the majority of existing SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibodies. Nature 602, 657–663 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sievers, B. L. et al. Antibodies elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection or mRNA vaccines have reduced neutralizing activity against Beta and Omicron pseudoviruses. Sci. Transl. Med. 14, eabn7842 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chan, C. M. et al. Examination of seroprevalence of coronavirus HKU1 infection with S protein-based ELISA and neutralization assay against viral spike pseudotyped virus. J. Clin. Virol. 45, 54–60 (2009).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Payne, S. In Viruses (ed Susan Payne) 61–71 (Academic Press, 2017).

Clarke, K. E. N. et al. Seroprevalence of infection-induced SARS-CoV-2 antibodies—United States, September 2021–February 2022. MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly Rep. 71, 606–608 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Schuh, A. J. et al. SARS-CoV-2 convalescent sera binding and neutralizing antibody concentrations compared with COVID-19 vaccine efficacy estimates against symptomatic infection. Microbiol Spectr. 10, e0124722 (2022).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ng, D. L. et al. SARS-CoV-2 seroprevalence and neutralizing activity in donor and patient blood. Nature. Communications 11, 4698 (2020).

CAS  Google Scholar 

Mulligan, M. J. et al. Phase I/II study of COVID-19 RNA vaccine BNT162b1 in adults. Nature 586, 589–593 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Golan, Y. et al. COVID-19 mRNA vaccination in lactation: assessment of adverse events and vaccine related antibodies in mother–infant dyads. Front Immunol. 12, 777103 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Golan, Y. et al. Milk antibody response after 3(rd) COVID-19 vaccine and SARS-CoV-2 infection and implications for infant protection. iScience 26, 107767 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Fu, W. et al. Systematic review of the safety, immunogenicity, and effectiveness of COVID-19 vaccines in pregnant and lactating individuals and their infants. Int J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 156, 406–417 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Valcarce, V. et al. Detection of SARS-CoV-2-specific IgA in the human milk of COVID-19 vaccinated lactating health care workers. Breastfeed. Med. 16, 1004–1009 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Richard, R. M. et al. Breast milk conferred immunity to infants against COVID-19. Cureus 15, e42075 (2023).

PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sabharwal, V. et al. Comparison of anti-SARS-CoV-2-specific antibody signatures in maternal and infant blood after COVID-19 infection versus COVID-19 vaccination during pregnancy. Am. J. Perinatol. 41, e2970–e2977(2023).

Zelini, P. et al. Impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy and persistence of antibody response. N. Microbiol. 45, 181–189 (2022).

CAS  Google Scholar 

Rick, A. M. et al. Impact of maternal SARS-CoV-2 booster vaccination on blood and breastmilk antibodies. PLoS One 18, e0287103 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dude, C. M. et al. Antibody response, neutralizing potency, and transplacental antibody transfer following SARS-CoV-2 infection versus mRNA-1273, BNT162b2 COVID-19 vaccination in pregnancy. Int J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 162, 154–162 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sano, K. et al. SARS-CoV-2 vaccination induces mucosal antibody responses in previously infected individuals. Nat. Commun. 13, 5135 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Crotty, S. Hybrid immunity. Science 372, 1392–1393 (2021).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lucot-Royer, L. et al. Analysis of the transplacental transmission of SARS CoV-2 virus and antibody transfer according to the gestational age at maternal infection. Sci. Rep. 14, 3458 (2024).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Prabhu, M. et al. Longitudinal antibody response kinetics following SARS-CoV-2 messenger RNA vaccination in pregnant and nonpregnant persons. Am. J. Obstet. Gynecol. MFM 5, 100796 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Conti, M. G. et al. Immune response of neonates born to mothers infected with SARS-CoV-2. JAMA Netw. Open 4, e2132563 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hookham, L. et al. Seroepidemiology of SARS-CoV-2