Otto, S. An approach to the de novo synthesis of life. Acc. Chem. Res. 55, 145–155 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mann, S. The origins of life: old problems, new chemistries. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 52, 155–162 (2013).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Del Bianco, C. & Mansy, S. S. Nonreplicating protocells. Acc. Chem. Res. 45, 2125–2130 (2012).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Xu, C., Hu, S. & Chen, X. Artificial cells: from basic science to applications. Mater. Today 19, 516–532 (2016).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Guindani, C., da Silva, L. C., Cao, S., Ivanov, T. & Landfester, K. Synthetic cells: from simple bio-inspired modules to sophisticated integrated systems. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 61, e202110855 (2022).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Buddingh’, B. C. & van Hest, J. C. M. Artificial cells: synthetic compartments with life-like functionality and adaptivity. Acc. Chem. Res. 50, 769–777 (2017).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kumar, S., Karmacharya, M. & Cho, Y.-K. Bridging the gap between nonliving matter and cellular life. Small 19, 2202962 (2023).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Maity, S. et al. Caught in the act: mechanistic insight into supramolecular polymerization-driven self-replication from real-time visualization. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 142, 13709–13717 (2020).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Zwicker, D., Seyboldt, R., Weber, C. A., Hyman, A. A. & Jülicher, F. Growth and division of active droplets provides a model for protocells. Nat. Phys. 13, 408–413 (2017).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Robinson, A. O., Venero, O. M. & Adamala, K. P. Toward synthetic life: biomimetic synthetic cell communication. Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol. 64, 165–173 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Niederholtmeyer, H., Chaggan, C. & Devaraj, N. K. Communication and quorum sensing in non-living mimics of eukaryotic cells. Nat. Commun. 9, 5027 (2018).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pearce, S. & Perez-Mercader, J. Chemoadaptive polymeric assemblies by integrated chemical feedback in self-assembled synthetic protocells. ACS Cent. Sci. 7, 1543–1550 (2021).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cheng, G. et al. Self-assembly of smart multifunctional hybrid compartments with programmable bioactivity. Chem. Mater. 29, 2081–2089 (2017).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Cheng, G. & Pérez-Mercader, J. Engineering programmable synthetic vesicles with permeability regulated by a single molecular bridge. Chem. Mater. 31, 5691–5698 (2019).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Blackman, L. D. et al. Permeable protein-loaded polymersome cascade nanoreactors by polymerization-induced self-assembly. ACS Macro Lett. 6, 1263–1267 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Caschera, F. & Noireaux, V. Compartmentalization of an all-E. coli cell-free expression system for the construction of a minimal cell. Artif. Life 22, 185–195 (2016).

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Spoelstra, W. K., Deshpande, S. & Dekker, C. Tailoring the appearance: what will synthetic cells look like? Curr. Opin. Biotechnol. 51, 47–56 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Schoonen, L. & van Hest, J. C. M. Compartmentalization approaches in soft matter science: from nanoreactor development to organelle mimics. Adv. Mater. 28, 1109–1128 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Marguet, M., Bonduelle, C. & Lecommandoux, S. Multicompartmentalized polymeric systems: towards biomimetic cellular structure and function. Chem. Soc. Rev. 42, 512–529 (2013).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rideau, E., Dimova, R., Schwille, P., Wurm, F. R. & Landfester, K. Liposomes and polymersomes: a comparative review towards cell mimicking. Chem. Soc. Rev. 47, 8572–8610 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gouveia, M. G. et al. Polymersome-based protein drug delivery—quo vadis? Chem. Soc. Rev. 52, 728–778 (2023).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rother, M., Nussbaumer, M. G., Renggli, K. & Bruns, N. Protein cages and synthetic polymers: a fruitful symbiosis for drug delivery applications, bionanotechnology and materials science. Chem. Soc. Rev. 45, 6213–6249 (2016).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Matoori, S. & Leroux, J.-C. Twenty-five years of polymersomes: lost in translation? Mater. Horizons 7, 1297–1309 (2020).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Varlas, S. et al. Tuning the membrane permeability of polymersome nanoreactors developed by aqueous emulsion polymerization-induced self-assembly. Nanoscale 11, 12643–12654 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Pei, Y., Lowe, A. B. & Roth, P. J. Stimulus-responsive nanoparticles and associated (reversible) polymorphism via polymerization induced self-assembly (PISA). Macromol. Rapid Commun. 38, 1600528 (2017).

Article  Google Scholar 

Penfold, N. J. W., Yeow, J., Boyer, C. & Armes, S. P. Emerging trends in polymerization-induced self-assembly. ACS Macro Lett. 8, 1029–1054 (2019).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Busatto, N., Stolojan, V., Shaw, M., Keddie, J. L. & Roth, P. J. Reactive polymorphic nanoparticles: preparation via polymerization-induced self-assembly and postsynthesis thiol–para-fluoro core modification. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 40, 1800346 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Sobotta, F. H. et al. Tuneable time delay in the burst release from oxidation-sensitive polymersomes made by PISA. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. https://doi.org/10.1002/anie.202108928 (2021).

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Le, D., Keller, D. & Delaittre, G. Reactive and functional nanoobjects by polymerization-induced self-assembly. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 40, 1800551 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Cheng, G. & Pérez-Mercader, J. Polymerization-induced self-assembly for artificial biology: opportunities and challenges. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 40, 1970006 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Wan, J., Fan, B. & Thang, S. H. RAFT-mediated polymerization-induced self-assembly (RAFT-PISA): current status and future directions. Chem. Sci. 13, 4192–4224 (2022).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

D’Agosto, F., Rieger, J. & Lansalot, M. RAFT-mediated polymerization-induced self-assembly. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 59, 8368–8392 (2020).

Article  Google Scholar 

Charleux, B., Delaittre, G., Rieger, J. & D’Agosto, F. Polymerization-induced self-assembly: from soluble macromolecules to block copolymer nano-objects in one step. Macromolecules 45, 6753–6765 (2012).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Lansalot, M. & Rieger, J. Polymerization-induced self-assembly. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 40, 1800885 (2019).

Article  Google Scholar 

Liu, C., Hong, C. Y. & Pan, C. Y. Polymerization techniques in polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA). Polym. Chem. 11, 3673–3689 (2020).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Bastakoti, B. P. & Perez-Mercader, J. Facile one-pot synthesis of functional giant polymeric vesicles controlled by oscillatory chemistry. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 56, 12086–12091 (2017).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Yoshida, E. Giant vesicles prepared by nitroxide-mediated photo-controlled/living radical polymerization-induced self-assembly. Colloid. Polym. Sci. 291, 2733–2739 (2013).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Yoshida, E. Morphology control of giant vesicles by manipulating hydrophobic-hydrophilic balance of amphiphilic random block copolymers through polymerization-induced self-assembly. Colloid. Polym. Sci. 292, 763–769 (2014).

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Albertsen, A. N., Szymański, J. K. & Pérez-Mercader, J. Emergent properties of giant vesicles formed by a polymerization-induced self-assembly (PISA) reaction. Sci Rep. 7, 41534 (2017).

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Rodriguez, K. J. et al. Repurposing biocatalysts to control radical polymerizations. ACS Macro Lett. 7, 1111–1119 (2018).

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tan, J. et al. Enzyme-PISA: an efficient method for preparing well-defined polymer nano-objects under mild conditions. Macromol. Rapid Commun. 39, 1700871 (2018).

Article