Prevalence and risk factors of concurrent bacteremia in children under 5 years of age hospitalized with viral lower respiratory tract infections

Jain S, Williams DJ, Arnold SR et al (2015) Community-acquired pneumonia requiring hospitalization among U.S. Children. N Engl J Med 372(9):835–845. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1405870

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Hall CB, Weinberg GA, Iwane MK et al (2009) The burden of respiratory syncytial virus infection in young children. N Engl J Med 360(6):588–598. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0804877

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Shi T, McLean K, Campbell H, Nair H (2015) Aetiological role of common respiratory viruses in acute lower respiratory infections in children under five years: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Glob Health 5(1):010408. https://doi.org/10.7189/jogh.05.010408

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brealey JC, Sly PD, Young PR, Chappell KJ (2015) Viral bacterial co-infection of the respiratory tract during early childhood. FEMS Microbiol Lett 362(10):fnv062. https://doi.org/10.1093/femsle/fnv062

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hendaus MA, Jomha FA, Alhammadi AH (2015) Virus-induced secondary bacterial infection: a concise review. Ther Clin Risk Manag 11:1265–1271. https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S87789

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Modler J, Morris SK, Bettinger JA et al (2024) Bloodstream infections in children hospitalized for influenza, the Canadian immunization monitoring program active. Pediatr Infect Dis J 43(4):301–306. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000004199

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cebey-López M, Pardo-Seco J, Gómez-Carballa A et al (2016) Bacteremia in children hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus infection. PLoS ONE 11(2):e0146599. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0146599

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cadotte N, Moore H, Stone BL et al (2024) Prevalence of and risks for bacterial infections in hospitalized children with bronchiolitis. Hosp Pediatr 14(8):603–611. https://doi.org/10.1542/hpeds.2023-007549

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Purcell K, Fergie J (2004) Concurrent serious bacterial infections in 912 infants and children hospitalized for treatment of respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 23(3):267–269. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.inf.0000116759.21252.29

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bloomfield P, Dalton D, Karleka A, Kesson A, Duncan G, Isaacs D (2004) Bacteraemia and antibiotic use in respiratory syncytial virus infections. Arch Dis Child 89(4):363–367. https://doi.org/10.1136/adc.2003.035105

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Levine DA, Platt SL, Dayan PS et al (2004) Risk of serious bacterial infection in young febrile infants with respiratory syncytial virus infections. Pediatrics 113(6):1728–1734. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.113.6.1728

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Contes KM, Liu BM (2025) Epidemiology, clinical significance, and diagnosis of respiratory viruses and their Co-Infections in the Post-COVID era. Pathogens 14(3):262. https://doi.org/10.3390/pathogens14030262

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ye Q, Wang D (2022) Epidemiological changes of common respiratory viruses in children during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Med Virol 94(5):1990–1997. https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.27570

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Yang MC, Su YT, Chen PH, Tsai CC, Lin TI, Wu JR (2023) Changing patterns of infectious diseases in children during the COVID-19 pandemic. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 13:1200617. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcimb.2023.1200617

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Interim Guidelines for Collecting and Handling of Clinical Specimens for COVID-19 Testing 2024. https://www.cdc.gov/covid/hcp/clinical-care/clinical-specimen-guidelines.html. Accessed [4 June 2025]

United States Centers for Disease Control (CDC) National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) (2023) https://www.cdc.gov/nhsn/pdfs/pscmanual/4psc_clabscurrent.pdf. Accessed [6 June 2025]

The European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Breakpoint tables for interpretation of MICs and zone diameters. Versions 8.0 to 14.0, 2018–2024. Available at: https://www.eucast.org/clinical_breakpoints/. Accessed [14 June 2025]

Polat M, Akçay A, Önal B, Öztürk N, Şahin EA, Demirdağ TB, Tapısız A (2024) Concurrent Klebsiella bacteremia in two infants with severe respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 43(11):e419–e421. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000004442

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cite Moffitt KL, Nakamura MM, Young CC et al (2023) Community-Onset bacterial coinfection in children critically ill with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 infection. Open Forum Infect Dis 10(3):ofad122. https://doi.org/10.1093/ofid/ofad122

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Jacob R, Padeh G, Kaplan O et al (2023) Bacterial infections and clinical outcomes among febrile infants up to 90 days old with SARS-CoV-2 infection: A multicenter cohort study. Pediatr Infect Dis J 42(10):905–907. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000004019

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Edris Y, Ayana DA, Aiken AM et al (2025) Epidemiology of Community-acquired bacteremia among children one to Fifty-nine months of age admitted to a tertiary hospital in harar, Eastern Ethiopia. Pediatr Infect Dis J. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000004842

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Stewart AG, Harris PNA, Edwards F, Kiani B, Paterson DL, Laupland KB (2025) Klebsiella pneumoniae species complex bloodstream infection in adult patients: changing epidemiology and determinants of poor outcomes. Infection 53(3):1179–1187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-024-02457-w

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh L, Cariappa MP, Kaur M (2016) Klebsiella oxytoca: an emerging pathogen? Med J Armed Forces India 72(Suppl 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mjafi.2016.05.002. S59-S61

Yang J, Long H, Hu Y, Feng Y, McNally A, Zong Z (2022) Klebsiella oxytoca complex: update on taxonomy, antimicrobial resistance, and virulence. Clin Microbiol Rev 35(1):e0000621. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00006-21

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cite Massinga AJ, Garrine M, Messa A Jr et al (2021) Klebsiella spp. Cause severe and fatal disease in Mozambican children: antimicrobial resistance profile and molecular characterization. BMC Infect Dis 21(1):526. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-021-06245-x

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Patel N, Al-Sayyed B, Gladfelter T, Tripathi S (2022) Epidemiology and outcomes of bacterial coinfection in hospitalized children with respiratory viral infections: A single center retrospective chart review. J Pediatr Pharmacol Ther 27(6):529–536. https://doi.org/10.5863/1551-6776-27.6.529

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Green RS, Sartori LF, Florin TA et al (2024) Predictors of invasive bacterial infection in febrile infants aged 2 to 6 months in the emergency department. J Pediatr 270:114017. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2024.114017

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Houten CB, Naaktgeboren C et al (2018) Antibiotic overuse in children with respiratory syncytial virus lower respiratory tract infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J 37(11):1077–1081. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0000000000001981

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hanada S, Pirzadeh M, Carver KY, Deng JC (2018) Respiratory viral Infection-Induced Microbiome alterations and secondary bacterial pneumonia. Front Immunol 16:9:2640. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02640

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Holmes CL, Anderson MT, Mobley HLT, Bachman MA (2021) Pathogenesis of Gram-Negative bacteremia. Clin Microbiol Rev 10(2):e00234–e00220. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00234-20

Article  Google Scholar 

Zeng X, Lloyd KM, Hamdy RF et al (2025) Identification and characterization of an invasive, hyper-aerotolerant Campylobacter jejuni strain causing bacteremia in a pediatric leukemia patient. ASM Case Rep 1:e00060–e00024. https://doi.org/10.1128/asmcr.00060-24

Article  Google Scholar 

Greenhow TL, Hung YY, Herz A (2017) Bacteremia in children 3 to 36 months old after introduction of conjugated Pneumococcal vaccines. Pediatrics 139(4):e20162098. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2016-2098

Article  PubMed 

Comments (0)

No login
gif