Investigating IPC from the perspective of school counsellors provided valuable insights into collaborative processes and the factors influencing these processes. The research questions were extensively explored in the preceding section with the main themes of School Counsellors Recognised the Essentiality of Collaboration, Evolving Relationships, and Adapting to Multifaceted and Dynamic Situations illuminating on the nature of collaborative processes. The corresponding subthemes formed facets of the overarching domains, relating to the factors that influenced the strength of collaborative relationships. The main themes collectively contribute to the overarching struggle that school counsellors continually undergo in deciding on the extent of a collaborative effort with a particular professional.

By integrating the perspectives of school counsellors, this study contributes to existing literature by enhancing our understanding of IPC within Singapore’s school counselling, social care, and mental health spaces. While many themes and subthemes align with previous research findings, some nuances and differences emerge, warranting further exploration and explanation.

School Counsellors Recognised the Essentiality of Collaboration

Participants generally expressed a strong desire in collaborating with external professionals and current research supports the reverse trend. School counsellors primarily adopt a student-only focus, formally or informally required of their role (Chong et al., 2013). However, as P2 shared in Situation-Dependent Roles, the nature of working on mental health issues required interventions across different contexts, concurring with the literature that mental health issues are often intricately related to other domains, like family dynamics (Brooks et al., 2013; Lim & Wong, 2018; Morgan et al., 2019; Tausendfreund et al., 2016). School counsellors hence recognised the essentiality of working with external professionals who can fill these inherent gaps. Conversely, multiple stakeholders in Singapore have also expressed a similar appreciation for the involvement of school counsellors (Kok & Low, 2017; Lim & Wong, 2018; Low, 2014, 2015a, 2015b), thus motivating collaboration.

A unique finding of this study identified Unique Contributions to Team Efforts as a factor contributing to a desire to collaborate. This finding resonates with Bandura’s (1977) self-efficacy theory, which refers to an individual’s intrinsic belief in their capability to perform tasks, influence events, and achieve goals. This suggests that the recognition of contributions enhances the professional’s motivation to engage in collaborative endeavours. Moreover, Valuing Collaboration relates to the concept of collective efficacy, wherein “a group’s shared belief in its conjoint capabilities to organize and execute the courses of action required to produce given levels of attainments” (Bandura, 1997, p. 477). This has been frequently measured in studies conducted in teaching collaborative teams, providing some validity to its value (Anderson et al., 2023; Tschannen-Moran & Barr, 2004). Multilevel analyses have also found that collective efficacy contributes uniquely to student outcomes, after controlling for self-efficacy (Goddard & Goddard, 2001). Although the mechanisms and directions of influences are unclear, these highlight the potential role of self and collective efficacy in motivating collaboration between professionals.

Evolving Relationships

This theme underscores the significance of interpersonal dynamics in collaboration, echoing sentiments in both local and international studies (Low, 2019; Mellin & Weist, 2011; Sadana & Kumar, 2021). Notably, Gittell (2000) identified relationships and communication as the key factors enabling effective collaboration in her theory of Relational Coordination (RC), suggesting that the strength of relationships strongly influences the effectiveness of collaborative processes. This study extends these findings, highlighting the factors influencing the ebb and flow of these professional relationships in the Singapore context.

On a larger scale, it seems that the IPC culture has also evolved with time when comparing the current findings with local studies. Previous studies had highlighted differences in goals held by school counsellors built up by environmental influences (Lim & Wong, 2018; Low, 2014). External professionals interviewed in these studies had observed that school counsellors prioritised less urgent academic issues, negatively impacting the collaborative relationship. Instead, this study revealed a convergence in values such as client-centeredness and empathy. Over the years, it seems that school counsellors have become increasingly aligned in values and goals with external professionals.

Another difference is that of openness in information sharing. Whilst past studies in Singapore had reported insufficient information being shared with youth workers (Lim & Wong, 2018) or over-sharing with school staff (Low, 2015b), these issues did not emerge strongly in this study. Instead, school counsellors were more concerned with the timeliness and initiation of communications. Although one explanation could be that issues surrounding confidentiality are one-sided, an alternative explanation could be in relation to the increased salience of other communication issues. The urgency of responding to clients’ needs became more salient when the accessibility advantage of frequently being in contact with students and their families is considered. Thus, school counsellors became more mindful of these issues compared to confidentiality issues, which have also been declining in relevance (Low & van der Laan, 2023). The increasing alignment in goals and evolution of communication issues provides evidence for the development of more integrated working relationships between stakeholders as predicted by Low (2015b).

The above trends also suggest the possibility of IPC relationships and barriers continuing to transform, highlighting the importance of building a common understanding amongst all professionals (Low, 2015b). RC theory proposes that, in addition to an alignment in goals, shared knowledge is another critical component that influences the strength of professional relationships (Gittell, 2000). In the case of IPC in Singapore, shared knowledge includes case information as well as an in-depth understanding of roles to avoid misunderstandings as shared by P7 in Alignment in Goals, which arose from disparate practises amongst school counsellors. To further support the development of professional relationships, RC theory also highlighted the importance of organisational structures to facilitate communication and interpersonal interactions (see Bolton et al., 2021). An example is “relational job design”, whereby roles are well-defined whilst maintaining flexible boundaries to encourage cross-boundary support that is prevalent in IPC in Singapore (Gittell, 2016; Yeo & Lee, 2014). Regardless of interventions, it is likely that the IPC landscape will continue to transform in the future.

Despite the possible benefits, this study also highlights the temporal costs of investing in relationships. Fostering and maintaining relationships are time-consuming, requiring effort to reap the potential benefits (Glaeser et al., 2002; Gouldner, 1960). Considering the wide variety of external professionals that school counsellors have to work with, the time required to maintain all ties will be substantial (Low, 2019; Yeo & Lee, 2014). In addition, school counsellors have already been reported to be struggling with their other responsibilities (Chong et al., 2013; Kok, 2013). Nonetheless, the long-term gains through strong relationships with external professionals, as P5 had described in Reciprocity, include many intangible and indirect advantages like having “eyes and ears in the community” to provide timely information. These benefits also transfer across cases, when school counsellors work with the same professional. Thus, school counsellors can be mindful of the strategic value of nurturing strong relationships.

Adapting to Multifaceted and Dynamic Situations

This theme illuminates on the proactive role that school counsellors undertake in navigating the diverse and dynamic scenarios they face. This showcases their requisite creativity, flexibility, and adaptability in confronting unfamiliar circumstances. Hsi and Boman (2023) had also previously noted cognitive and behavioural flexibility, referring to the ability to switch between different concepts in response to environmental stimuli (Scott, 1962), to be important in the development of the professional identity of tertiary school counsellors. These soft skills were important in responding to the expectations of other stakeholders and improving the perception of others towards themselves (Hsi & Boman, 2023). This study provides support for cognitive and behavioural flexibility to be critical in collaborative work for mainstream primary and secondary school counsellors as well.

Further complicating the multifaceted role of school counsellors is the presence of other stakeholders like parents and school leaders that can strongly influence IPC effectiveness. School counsellors have to be mindful of these potential factors and effectively manage the expectations of these stakeholders for effective IPC to occur (e.g. P4 in Influence of Other Stakeholders). To navigate the challenges in working with caregivers, Low (2015b) has advocated for family therapy to be conducted by school counsellors, a common view amongst external counsellors (Low & van der Laan, 2023; Low, 2015b). Providing cultural insight into the difficulties in working with school leaders, Harrison and Low (2024) used the concept of power distance in present in the hierarchical work culture of schools that limit the decision-making freedom of school counsellors, proving detrimental to the effectiveness of interventions (Prasath et al., 2021; Yeo & Lee, 2014). Thus, current research further illustrates the intricate challenges that school counsellors face.

This theme also reveals the unofficial role of school counsellors in acting as “chameleons”, adjusting their roles to maintain the coherence of interventions. Little recognition has been given to the work of Singaporean school counsellors for many years, contributing to a weak professional identity (Harrison, 2022; Hsi & Boman, 2023; Low, 2019; Yeo & Lee, 2014). The perspectives of participants in this study detail the valuable contributions of school counsellors, further emphasising the importance of integrating school counsellors into collaborative team efforts. The common occurrence of boundary crossings past traditional role boundaries also highlights the need to better equip school counsellors with the skills and knowledge to effectively address the pressing needs of students and their families (Hsi & Boman, 2023; Kok, 2013; Low, 2009). Acknowledging and improving the proficiency of school counsellors can garner appreciation for their efforts, fostering a stronger desire to collaborate and further develop the professional identity of school counsellors (Harrison & Low, 2024; Hsi & Boman, 2023).

Recommendations for Practise and Policy

To enhance collaborative efforts from school counsellors, interventions should prioritise the alleviation of existing barriers to capitalise on intrinsic motivators, as illustrated in Fig. 2. The findings of this study can inform changes in the various layers affecting IPC work, namely the systemic, training, and individual levels.

While policy and structural changes to reduce barriers provide a straightforward solution, they should be implemented carefully to avoid over-regulation and resistance to adoption which can hinder the desired outcomes. A possible systemic change might involve adopting an ecological model where roles are clearly distinguished from each other, with the role of school counsellors rising in influence (Fears et al., 2023; Harrison & Low, 2024). Such clarity potentially reduces role complexity and the workload of school counsellors. However, implementing new guidelines often faces various challenges spanning organisational to individual levels (see Fischer et al., 2016). This complicates the process, resulting in a slow uptake of changes. Inconsistent adoption of practises can further complicate collaborative work, increasing the difficulty to adapt to these changes. Another issue is that excessively structured guidelines can backfire, decreasing voluntary collaboration when professionals feel over-controlled (Nooteboom et al., 2021; Time, 2021). Persistent inefficiencies and disparate processes have remained a challenge over the years, despite much room for improvements (Kok, 2013; Low, 2009).

Refining existing training programmes emerges as a pragmatic approach, equipping trainees with the requisite skills and knowledge to navigate complex scenarios effectively. Synthesising the findings of this study with previous research can inform counsellor educators of the challenges encountered by school counsellors in the field. A potential addition can include formalised training on community resources to enhance understanding of role boundaries amongst professionals, establishing realistic expectations for collaborative goals (Low & van der Laan, 2023). A nuanced understanding of roles can also equip school counsellors with the knowledge to adapt to unexpected and unfamiliar service gaps faced. In addition to structured training, experienced practitioners can facilitate knowledge-sharing sessions, offering insights into creative problem-solving strategies for managing common service gaps. With comprehensive training programmes, future school counsellors are likely to become more proficient and efficient in their roles, lowering the barriers to collaboration depicted in Fig. 2.

To effect meaningful change from within, practitioners must remain aware of hindrances to collaboration. The importance of maintaining professional relationships with stakeholders while effectively navigating job demands is a delicate balance that often goes unrecognised until later in one’s career. Even when aware, practitioners may consider rapport building as “back-end” work, secondary to other core responsibilities (P3 in Prioritisation of Time). This study suggests reframing personal attitudes to view relationship-building as essential to their work, thus facilitating effective collaboration. By being cognisant of the potential benefits of relationships, practitioners may also actively seek more efficient strategies that mitigate the impact on their direct work with students (Spaulding et al., 2021).

Limitations and Future Research

Some limitations had been mentioned in the “Methods” section, namely the use of a single coder being prone to potential biases. In addition, as commonly associated with qualitative research utilising a small and purposive sample, the generalisability of findings is limited. The spread of years in service, former roles in and outside schools as well as other personal factors were not evenly distributed in this sample. Nevertheless, the findings present a coherent voice for school counsellors with substantial years of service in mainstream schools.

Future studies can build upon these current findings, working towards generalisability to school counsellors and even external professionals in IPC. The current findings add to the limited body of local research in IPC, although more studies will be needed to provide a comprehensive understanding of processes. Although saturation of themes was observed, further interviews may yield more in-depth and contextualised findings, especially with other samples of school counsellors to validate the generalisability of the findings. To this end, questionnaires could also be developed (e.g. Mellin et al., 2014), applying factor analysis techniques to determine significant influences on IPC.