Durcan L, O’Dwyer T, Petri M. Management strategies and future directions for systemic lupus erythematosus in adults. Lancet. 2019;393(10188):2332–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)30237-5.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fortuna G, Brennan MT. Systemic lupus erythematosus: epidemiology, pathophysiology, manifestations, and management. Dent Clin North Am. 2013;57(4):631–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cden.2013.06.003.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rees F, Doherty M, Grainge M, et al. The incidence and prevalence of systemic lupus erythematosus in the UK, 1999–2012. Ann Rheum Dis. 2016;75(1):136–41. https://doi.org/10.1136/annrheumdis-2014-206334.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh JA. In-hospital mortality reduction in systemic lupus erythematosus over 2 decades varied by patient sex and age. Clin Rheumatol. 2021;40(3):1201–3. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10067-020-05563-w.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gergianaki I, Bortoluzzi A, Bertsias G. Update on the epidemiology, risk factors, and disease outcomes of systemic lupus erythematosus. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2018;32(2):188–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2018.09.004.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kiriakidou M, Ching CL. Systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med. 2020;172(11):ITC81–96. https://doi.org/10.7326/AITC202006020.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rubin RL. Drug-induced lupus. Expert Opin Drug Saf. 2015;14(3):361–78. https://doi.org/10.1517/14740338.2015.995089.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Nusbaum JS, Mirza I, Shum J, et al. Sex differences in systemic lupus erythematosus: epidemiology, clinical considerations, and disease pathogenesis. Mayo Clin Proc. 2020;95(2):384–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mayocp.2019.09.012.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Braga A, Barros T, Faria R, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus and pregnancy: a retrospective single-center study of 215 pregnancies from Portugal. Lupus. 2021;30(13):2165–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/09612033211050340.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Moroni G, Ponticelli C. Pregnancy in women with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Eur J Intern Med. 2016;32:7–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejim.2016.04.005.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Costenbader KH, Feskanich D, Stampfer MJ, et al. Reproductive and menopausal factors and risk of systemic lupus erythematosus in women. Arthritis Rheum. 2007;56(4):1251–62. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.22510.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Parks CG, Santos AD, Barbhaiya M, Costenbader KH. Understanding the role of environmental factors in the development of systemic lupus erythematosus. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol. 2017;31(3):306–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.berh.2017.09.005.

Alpízar-Rodríguez D, Romero-Díaz J, Sánchez-Guerrero J, et al. Age at natural menopause among patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheumatology (Oxford). 2014;53(11):2023–9. https://doi.org/10.1093/rheumatology/keu222.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sánchez-Guerrero J, Liang MH, Karlson EW, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and the risk for developing systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann Intern Med. 1995;122(6):430–3. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-122-6-199503150-00005.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Grimes DA, LeBolt SA, Grimes KR, et al. Systemic lupus erythematosus and reproductive function: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985;153(2):179–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(85)90108-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Cooper GS, Dooley MA, Treadwell EL, et al. Hormonal and reproductive risk factors for development of systemic lupus erythematosus: results of a population-based, case-control study. Arthritis Rheum. 2002;46(7):1830–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/art.10365.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kim JW, Kim HA, Suh CH, et al. Sex hormones affect the pathogenesis and clinical characteristics of systemic lupus erythematosus. Front Med (Lausanne). 2022;9:906475. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2022.906475.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ramezankhani R, Minaei N, Haddadi M, et al. The impact of sex on susceptibility to systemic lupus erythematosus and rheumatoid arthritis; a bioinformatics point of view. Cell Signal. 2021;88:110171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cellsig.2021.110171.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Constantin AM, Baicus C. Estradiol in systemic lupus erythematosus. Acta Endocrinol (Buchar). 2023;19(2):274–6. https://doi.org/10.4183/aeb.2023.274.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dong W, Peng Q, Liu Z, et al. Estrogen plays an important role by influencing the NLRP3 inflammasome. Biomed Pharmacother. 2023;167:115554. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115554.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wu D, Ye L, Zhang X, et al. Characteristics of steroid hormones in systemic lupus erythematosus revealed by GC/MS-based metabolic profiling. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2023;14:1164679. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1164679.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Torricelli M, Bellisai F, Novembri R, et al. High levels of maternal serum IL-17 and activin A in pregnant women affected by systemic lupus erythematosus. Am J Reprod Immunol. 2011;66(2):84–9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.00978.x.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Wu C, Borné Y, Gao R, et al. Elevated circulating follistatin associates with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes. Nat Commun. 2021;12(1):6486. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26536-w.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Emdin CA, Khera AV, Kathiresan S. Mendelian Randomization. JAMA. 2017;318(19):1925–6. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.17219.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Sekula P, Del Greco MF, Pattaro C, et al. Mendelian randomization as an approach to assess causality using observational data. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2016;27(11):3253–65. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2016010098.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Smith GD, Ebrahim S. ‘Mendelian randomization’: can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Int J Epidemiol. 2003;32(1):1–22. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyg070.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Perry JR, Day F, Elks CE, et al. Parent-of-origin-specific allelic associations among 106 genomic loci for age at menarche. Nature. 2014;514(7520):92–7. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13545.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Day FR, Ruth KS, Thompson DJ, et al. Large-scale genomic analyses link reproductive aging to hypothalamic signaling, breast cancer susceptibility and BRCA1-mediated DNA repair. Nat Genet. 2015;47(11):1294–303. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3412.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ruth KS, Day FR, Tyrrell J, et al. Using human genetics to understand the disease impacts of testosterone in men and women. Nat Med. 2020;26(2):252–8. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0751-5.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Folkersen L, Gustafsson S, Wang Q, et al. Genomic and drug target evaluation of 90 cardiovascular proteins in 30,931 individuals. Nat Metab. 2020;2(10):1135–48. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-020-00287-2.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Bentham J, Morris DL, Graham DSC, et al. Genetic association analyses implicate aberrant regulation of innate and adaptive immunity genes in the pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus. Nat Genet. 2015;47(12):1457–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.3434.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chen L, Yang H, Li H, et al. Insights into modifiable risk factors of cholelithiasis: a Mendelian randomization study. Hepatology. 2022;75(4):785–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/hep.32183.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bowden J, Holmes MV. Meta-analysis and Mendelian randomization: a review. Res Synth Methods. 2019;10(4):486–96. https://doi.org/10.1002/jrsm.1346.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Birney E. Mendelian randomization. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med. 2022;12(4):a041302. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a041302.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Burgess S, Thompson SG. Interpreting findings from Mendelian randomization using the MR-Egger method. Eur J Epidemiol Eur J Epidemiol. 2017;32(5):377–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-017-0255-x.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hansen JS, Rutti S, Arous C, et al. Circulating follistatin is liver-derived and regulated by the glucagon-to-insulin ratio. J Clin