Wichmann T. Pathophysiologic basis of movement disorders. Current Concepts in Movement Disorder Management. 2018; 33: 13–24. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000480718 

Bloem BR, Bhatia KP. Gait and balance in basal ganglia disorders. Clinical disorders of balance, posture and gait. 2004; 2: 173–206. 

Organization WH, Ageing WHO, Unit LC. WHO global report on falls prevention in older age. World Health Organization; 2008. 

Zecevic AA, Salmoni AW, Speechley M, Vandervoort AA. Defining a fall and reasons for falling: comparisons among the views of seniors, health care providers, and the research literature. The Gerontologist. 2006; 46(3): 367–76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/46.3.367 

NCBI. Accidental Falls: National Library of Medicine, National Center for Biotechnology Information; 1987. [Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mesh?Db=mesh&Cmd=?DetailsSearch&Term?=%22Accidental+Falls%22%5BMeSH+Terms%5D. 

Sturnieks DL. Biomechanics of Balance and Falling. Falls in Older People: Risk Factors, Strategies for Prevention and Implications for Practice. 2021; 105. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108594455.006 

Nagy A, Kruse W, Rottmann S, Dannenberg S, Hoffmann K-P. Somatosensory-motor neuronal activity in the superior colliculus of the primate. Neuron. 2006; 52(3): 525–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2006.08.010 

Doná F, Aquino CC, Gazzola JM, Borges V, Silva SM, Ganança FF, et al. Changes in postural control in patients with Parkinson‘s disease: a posturographic study. Physiotherapy. 2016; 102(3): 272–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physio.2015.08.009 

Tian J, Herdman SJ, Zee DS, Folstein SE. Postural control in Huntington‘s disease (HD). Acta Oto-Laryngologica. 1991; 111(sup481): 333–6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3109/00016489109131415 

De Pauw J, Mercelis R, Hallemans A, Van Gils G, Truijen S, Cras P, et al. Postural control and the relation with cervical sensorimotor control in patients with idiopathic adult-onset cervical dystonia. Experimental Brain Research. 2018; 236(3): 803–11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00221-018-5174-x 

Rossi-Izquierdo M, Franco-Gutiérrez V, San-Román-Rodríguez E, Patiño-Castiñeira B, Alberte-Woodward M, Guijarro-Del-Amo M, et al. What could posturography tell us about balance in essential tremor? Gait & Posture. 2022; 96: 338–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2022.06.013 

Ahlgrén-Rimpiläinen A, Lauerma H, Kähkönen S, Aalto H, Tuisku K, Holi M, et al. Postural control in restless legs syndrome with medication intervention using pramipexole. Neurological Sciences. 2014; 35(2): 199–204. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10072-013-1478-6 

Blanchet M, Prince F, Lemay M, Chouinard S, Messier J. Maximal stability limits in adolescents with Tourette syndrome; 2021. 

Galvão AF, Lemos T, Martins CP, Horsczaruk CHR, Oliveira LAS, de Sá Ferreira A. Body sway and movement strategies for control of postural stability in people with spinocerebellar ataxia type 3: A cross-sectional study. Clinical Biomechanics. 2022; 97: 105711. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2022.105711 

Florence CS, Bergen G, Atherly A, Burns E, Stevens J, Drake C. Medical Costs of Fatal and Nonfatal Falls in Older Adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society. 2018; 66(4): 693–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.15304 

World Health Organization. Ageing and Life Course Unit. WHO global report on falls prevention in older age. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization. 2008; iv: 47. 

Stevens JA, Corso PS, Finkelstein EA, Miller TR. The costs of fatal and non-fatal falls among older adults. Inj Prev. 2006; 12(5): 290–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/ip.2005.011015 

Vaishya R, Vaish A. Falls in Older Adults are Serious. Indian journal of orthopaedics. 2020; 54(1): 69–74. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s43465-019-00037-x 

Schniepp R, Huppert A, Decker J, Schenkel F, Schlick C, Rasoul A, et al. Fall prediction in neurological gait disorders: differential contributions from clinical assessment, gait analysis, and daily-life mobility monitoring. Journal of Neurology. 2021; 268(9): 3421–34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-021-10504-x 

Walker RW, Chaplin A, Hancock RL, Rutherford R, Gray WK. Hip fractures in people with idiopathic Parkinson’s disease: incidence and outcomes. Mov Disord. 2013; 28(3): 334–40. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.25297 

Critchley RJ, Khan SK, Yarnall AJ, Parker MJ, Deehan DJ. Occurrence, management and outcomes of hip fractures in patients with Parkinson’s disease. British medical bulletin. 2015; 115(1): 135–42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/ldv029 

Bliemel C, Oberkircher L, Eschbach DA, Lechler P, Balzer-Geldsetzer M, Ruchholtz S, et al. Impact of Parkinson’s disease on the acute care treatment and medium-term functional outcome in geriatric hip fracture patients. Archives of orthopaedic and trauma surgery. 2015; 135(11): 1519–1526. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00402-015-2298-3 

Busse ME, Wiles CM, Rosser AE. Mobility and falls in people with Huntington’s disease. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2009; 80(1): 88–90. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/jnnp.2008.147793 

Grimbergen YAM, Knol MJ, Bloem BR, Kremer BPH, Roos RAC, Munneke M. Falls and gait disturbances in Huntington’s disease. Mov Disord. 2008; 23(7): 970–6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.22003 

Chel VG, Ooms ME, van der Bent J, Veldkamp F, Roos RA, Achterberg WP, et al. High prevalence of vitamin D deficiency and insufficiency in patients with manifest Huntington disease: An explorative study. Dermatoendocrinol. 2013; 5(3): 348–51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4161/derm.26135 

Purcell NL, Goldman JG, Ouyang B, Liu Y, Bernard B, O‘Keefe JA. The effects of dual-task cognitive interference on gait and turning in Huntington’s disease. PLoS One. 2020; 15(1): e0226827. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226827 

Terroba-Chambi C, Bruno V, Vigo DE, Merello M. Heart rate variability and falls in Huntington’s disease. Clin Auton Res. 2021; 31(2): 281–92. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-020-00669-2 

Kalkers K, Schols J, van Zwet EW, Roos RAC. Falls, Fear of Falling, and Preventive Measures in Huntington’s Disease: The Perspectives of Individuals with Huntington’s Disease and Caregivers in Long-Term Care. Journal of Huntington’s disease. 2021; 10(4): 493–503. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/JHD-210493 

Zarowitz BJ, O‘Shea T, Nance M. Clinical, demographic, and pharmacologic features of nursing home residents with Huntington’s disease. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2014; 15(6): 423–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2014.01.010 

Schiefer J, Werner CJ, Reetz K. Clinical diagnosis and management in early Huntington’s disease: a review. Degenerative Neurological and Neuromuscular Disease. 2015; 2015(5): 37–50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2147/DNND.S49135 

Lo J, Reyes A, Pulverenti TS, Rankin TJ, Bartlett DM, Zaenker P, et al. Dual tasking impairments are associated with striatal pathology in Huntington’s disease. Ann Clin Transl Neurol. 2020; 7(9): 1608–19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/acn3.51142 

Amboni M, Barone P, Hausdorff JM. Cognitive contributions to gait and falls: evidence and implications. Mov Disord. 2013; 28(11): 1520–33. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.25674 

Hartshorne NJ, Harruff RC, Alvord ECJ. Fatal Head Injuries in Ground-Level Falls. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 1997; 18(3): 258–64. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/00000433-199709000-00006 

Karibe H, Hayashi T, Hirano T, Kameyama M, Nakagawa A, Tominaga T. Surgical management of traumatic acute subdural hematoma in adults: a review. Neurologia medico-chirurgica. 2014; 54(11): 887–94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2176/nmc.cr.2014-0204 

Safety, tolerability, and efficacy of PBT2 in Huntington’s disease: a phase 2, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Neurol. 2015; 14(1): 39–47. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(14)70262-5 

Pechlivanis I, Andrich J, Scholz M, Harders A, Saft C, Schmieder K. Chronic subdural haematoma in patients with Huntington’s disease. Br J Neurosurg. 2006; 20(5): 327–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02688690601000956 

Solberg OK, Filkukova P, Frich JC, Feragen KJB. Age at Death and Causes of Death in Patients with Huntington Disease in Norway in 1986–2015. J Huntingtons Dis. 2018; 7(1): 77–86. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3233/JHD-170270 

Wheelock VL, Tempkin T, Marder K, Nance M, Myers RH, Zhao H, et al. Predictors of nursing home placement in Huntington disease. Neurology. 2003; 60(6): 998–1001. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000052992.58107.67 

Quinn L, Kegelmeyer D, Kloos A, Rao AK, Busse M, Fritz NE. Clinical recommendations to guide physical therapy practice for Huntington disease. Neurology. 2020; 94(5): 217–28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0000000000008887 

Kuzniar TJ, Silber MH. Multiple skeletal injuries resulting from uncontrolled restless legs syndrome. J Clin Sleep Med. 2007; 3(1): 60–1. 

Krøigård T, Beier CP. Falls caused by severe restless legs syndrome with persistent periodic limb movements during sleep and wakefulness. Sleep Medicine. 2020; 74: 78–80. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2020.05.015 

Becerra AF, Boch M, Al-Mezrakchi YA. Ropinirole-Associated Orthostatic Hypotension as Cause of a Prescribing Cascade in an Elderly Man. Cureus. 2021; 13(6). DOI: https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.15506 

Homann CN, Ivanic G, Homann B, Purkart TU. Vitamin D and Hyperkinetic Movement Disorders: A Systematic Review. Tremor and other hyperkinetic movements (New York, NY). 2020; 10: 32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/tohm.74 

Homann CN, Homann B. The Role of Vitamin D in Basal Ganglia Diseases. J Integr Neurosci. 2022; 21(6): 155. 

Alsafadi S, Abaalkhail B, Wali SO, Aljammali K, Alotaiby B, Zakaria I, et al. Risk factors of primary and secondary restless legs syndrome among a middle-aged population in Saudi Arabia: A community-based study. Ann Thorac Med. 2018; 13(3): 175–81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4103/atm.ATM_344_17 

Balaban H, Yildiz OK, Cil G, Senturk IA, Erselcan T, Bolayir E, et al. Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels in restless legs syndrome patients. Sleep Med. 2012; 13(7): 953–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2012.04.009 

Cikrikcioglu MA, Halac G, Hursitoglu M, Erkal H, Cakirca M, Kinas BE, et al. Prevalence of gluten sensitive enteropathy antibodies in restless legs syndrome. Acta Neurol Belg. 2011; 111(4): 282–6. 

Cheung MY, Shahed J, Jankovic J. Malignant Tourette syndrome. Mov Disord. 2007; 22(12): 1743–50. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.21599 

Lu Y-Y, Wang M-Y, Wei I-H, Lin C-C, Huang C-C. Tourette syndrome increases risk of bone fractures: a population-based cohort study. European child & adolescent psychiatry. 2017; 26(5): 531–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-016-0916-4 

Chen SF, Su YC, Wang LY, Hsu CY, Shen YC. Tourette‘s syndrome is associated with an increased risk of traumatic brain injury: A nationwide population-based cohort study. Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2019; 63: 88–93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2019.02.033 

Lemay M, Le TT, Richer F, Montreal Tourette Study G. Effects of a secondary task on postural control in children with Tourette syndrome. Gait Posture. 2010; 31(3): 326–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2009.11.017 

Liu WY, Lin PH, Lien HY, Wang HS, Wong AM, Tang SF. Spatio-temporal gait characteristics in children with Tourette syndrome: a preliminary study. Res Dev Disabil. 2014; 35(9): 2008–14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2014.04.025 

Seppala LJ, Wermelink AMAT, de Vries M, Ploegmakers KJ, van de Glind EMM, Daams JG, et al. Fall-Risk-Increasing Drugs: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis: II. Psychotropics. Journal of the American Medical Directors Association. 2018; 19(4): 371.e11–.e17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jamda.2017.12.098 

Rath JJG, Deen MEJ, van Houten H, de Bruijn S, van Gerven J, Mul D. Antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia in Tourette syndrome. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2017; 7(6–7): 201–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2045125317705012 

Calarge CA, Ivins SD, Motyl KJ, Shibli-Rahhal AA, Bliziotes MM, Schlechte JA. Possible mechanisms for the skeletal effects of antipsychotics in children and adolescents. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2013; 3(5): 278–93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/2045125313487548 

Rao AK, Gilman A, Louis ED. Balance confidence and falls in nondemented essential tremor patients: the role of cognition. Archives of physical medicine and rehabilitation. 2014; 95(10): 1832–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2014.04.001 

Louis ED, Kellner S, Morgan S, Collins K, Rohl B, Huey ED, et al. Cognitive Dysfunction Is Associated with Greater Imbalance and Falls in Essential Tremor. Frontiers in Neurology. 2017; 8: 154. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2017.00154 

Louis ED, Galecki M, Rao AK. Four Essential Tremor Cases with Moderately Impaired Gait: How Impaired can Gait be in this Disease? Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements. 2013; 3: tre-03-200-4597-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5334/tohm.138 

Cookson J, Hodgson R, Wildgust HJ. Prolactin, hyperprolactinaemia and antipsychotic treatment: a review and lessons for treatment of early psychosis. J Psychopharmacol. 2012; 26(5 Suppl): 42–51. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0269881112442016 

Baudendistel ST, Schmitt AC, Rodriguez AV, McFarland NR, Hass CJ. A turn for the worse: Turning performance in Parkinson’s disease and Essential tremor. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon). 2019; 70: 245–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiomech.2019.09.008 

Stolze H, Klebe S, Zechlin C, Baecker C, Friege L, Deuschl G. Falls in frequent neurological diseases–prevalence, risk factors and aetiology. J Neurol. 2004; 251(1): 79–84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-004-0276-8 

Boyce MJ, Lam L, Chang F, Mahant N, Fung VSC, Bradnam L. Validation of Fear of Falling and Balance Confidence Assessment Scales in Persons With Dystonia. Journal of neurologic physical therapy: JNPT. 2017; 41(4): 239–44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/NPT.0000000000000198 

Boyce MJ, Chang FCF, Mahant N, Fung VSC, Bradnam L. A survey of falls in people with dystonia. Physiotherapy Research International. 2020; 25(3): e1840. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pri.1840 

Barr C, Barnard R, Edwards L, Lennon S, Bradnam L. Impairments of balance, stepping reactions and gait in people with cervical dystonia. Gait & posture. 2017; 55: 55–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gaitpost.2017.04.004 

Boyce MJ, McCambridge AB, Bradnam LV, Canning CG, Mahant N, Chang FCF, et al. A cross-sectional study of walking, balance and upper limb assessment scales in people with cervical dystonia. J Neural Transm (Vienna). 2021; 128(11): 1663–75. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-021-02388-y 

Fonteyn EMR, Schmitz-Hübsch T, Verstappen CC, Baliko L, Bloem BR, Boesch S, et al. Falls in Spinocerebellar Ataxias: Results of the EuroSCA Fall Study. The Cerebellum. 2010; 9(2): 232–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311-010-0155-z 

Yu XF, Miao J, Li Y, Jiang XM, Ma YG, Meng HM. Myoclonic epilepsy with ragged-red fibers: A case report. Experimental and therapeutic medicine. 2015; 9(2): 432–4. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2014.2140 

Fonteyn EM, Schmitz-Hubsch T, Verstappen CC, Baliko L, Bloem BR, Boesch S, et al. Prospective analysis of falls in dominant ataxias. Eur Neurol. 2013; 69(1): 53–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000342907 

Synofzik M, Schule R. Overcoming the divide between ataxias and spastic paraplegias: Shared phenotypes, genes, and pathways. Movement disorders: official journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 2017; 32(3): 332–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.26944 

Richet M. Spontaneous Fractures in Patients Suffering from Ataxia. Edinburgh Medical Journal. 1874; 20(3): 281–2. 

Griffiths J. Spontaneous Fracture of Right Tibia and Fibula in a Case of Locomotor Ataxia. British Medical Journal. 1897; 1(1895): 1036–7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.1.1895.1036 

Eigentler A, Nachbauer W, Donnemiller E, Poewe W, Gasser RW, Boesch S. Low bone mineral density in Friedreich ataxia. Cerebellum. 2014; 13(5): 549–57. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12311-014-0568-1 

Sato Y, Honda Y, Asoh T, Iwamoto J. Longitudinal study of bone and calcium metabolism and fracture incidence in spinocerebellar degeneration. Eur Neurol. 2006; 56(3): 155–61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000096179 

Ilg W, Synofzik M, Brötz D, Burkard S, Giese M, Schöls L. Intensive coordinative training improves motor performance in degenerative cerebellar disease. Neurology. 2009; 73(22): 1823–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c33adf 

Ilg W, Brötz D, Burkard S, Giese MA, Schöls L, Synofzik M. Long-term effects of coordinative training in degenerative cerebellar disease. Movement disorders. 2010; 25(13): 2239–46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/mds.23222 

de Oliveira LAS, Martins CP, Horsczaruk CHR, da Silva DCL, Martins JVP, Vasconcelos LFR, et al. Decreasing fall risk in spinocerebellar ataxia. Journal of physical therapy science. 2015; 27(4): 1223–5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1589/jpts.27.1223 

Marchal-Muñoz A, García-Aranda M, Marchal-Muñoz M, Marchal-Escalona C, Redondo M. Effect of physical rehabilitation in patients with hereditary spinocerebellar ataxia. A systematic review. Rehabilitacion (Madr). 2020; 54(3): 200–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rh.2020.01.003 

Homann B, Plaschg A, Grundner M, Haubenhofer A, Griedl T, Ivanic G, et al. The impact of neurological disorders on the risk for falls in the community dwelling elderly: a case-controlled study. BMJ Open. 2013; 3(11): e003367. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2013-003367 

Cesari M, Landi F, Torre S, Onder G, Lattanzio F, Bernabei R. Prevalence and risk factors for falls in an older community-dwelling population. The Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences. 2002; 57(11): M722–M6. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/57.11.M722 

Canning CG, Allen NE, Bloem BR, Keus SHJ, Munneke M, Nieuwboer A, et al. Interventions for preventing falls in Parkinson’s disease. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews; 2015(3). DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD011574 

Costa de Miranda R, Di Lorenzo N, Andreoli A, Romano L, De Santis GL, Gualtieri P, et al. Body composition and bone mineral density in Huntington’s disease. Nutrition. 2018; 59: 145–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2018.08.005 

Goodman AO, Barker RA. Body composition in premanifest Huntington’s disease reveals lower bone density compared to controls. PLoS Curr. 2011; 3: RRN1214. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1371/currents.RRN1214 

Allen NE, Schwarzel AK, Canning CG. Recurrent Falls in Parkinson Disease: A Systematic Review. Parkinsons Disease. 2013; 16. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/906274 

Lyell V, Henderson E, Devine M, Gregson C. Assessment and management of fracture risk in patients with Parkinson’s disease. Age Ageing. 2015; 44(1): 34–41. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ageing/afu122 

Lai CH, Chen HC, Liou TH, Li W, Chen SC. Exercise Interventions for Individuals With Neurological Disorders: A Systematic Review of Systematic Reviews. American journal of physical medicine & rehabilitation. 2019; 98(10): 921–30. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1097/PHM.0000000000001247 

O‘Malley N, Clifford AM, Conneely M, Casey B, Coote S. Effectiveness of interventions to prevent falls for people with multiple sclerosis, Parkinson’s disease and stroke: an umbrella review. BMC Neurol. 2021; 21(1): 378. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12883-021-02402-6 

Sherrington C, Fairhall N, Kwok W, Wallbank G, Tiedemann A, Michaleff ZA, et al. Evidence on physical activity and falls prevention for people aged 65+ years: systematic review to inform the WHO guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 2020; 17(1): 144. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12966-020-01041-3 

Steiger L, Homann CN. Exercise therapy in Parkinson’s disease – An overview of current interventional studies. Physiotherapy Research and Reports. 2019; 1: 1–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15761/PRR.1000117