The U.S. Census Bureau. 2020 Census. http://data.census.gov. Accessed 2 May 2024.

Loya J. Racial stratification among Latinos in the mortgage market. Race Soc Probl. 2022;14(1):39–52.

Article  Google Scholar 

Shaw M. Housing and public health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2004;25(1):397–418.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Carrere J, Vásquez-Vera H, Pérez-Luna A, Novoa AM, Borrell C. Housing insecurity and mental health: the effect of housing tenure and the coexistence of life insecurities. J Urban Health. 2022;99(2):268–76.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Cairney J, Boyle MH. Home ownership, mortgages and psychological distress. Hous Stud. 2004;19(2):161–74.

Article  Google Scholar 

Courtin E, Dowd JB, Avendano M. The mental health benefits of acquiring a home in older age: a fixed-effects analysis of older US adults. Am J Epidemiol. 2018;187(3):465–73.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Rohe WM, Stewart LS. Homeownership and neighborhood stability. Hous Policy Debate. 1996;7(1):37–81.

Article  Google Scholar 

Yun L. Social benefits of homeownership and stable housing. 2012. https://www.nar.realtor/sites/default/files/migration_files/social-benefits-of-stable-housing-2012-04.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2024.

Cannuscio CC, Alley DE, Pagán JA, Soldo B, Krasny S, Shardell M, et al. Housing strain, mortgage foreclosure, and health. Nurs Outlook. 2012;60(3):134-142.e1.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Marshall GL, Canham SL, Kahana E, Larson E. Mortgage delinquency, foreclosure, and cognition in later life. Hous Soc. 2022;49(2):113–27.

Article  Google Scholar 

Vásquez-Vera H, Rodríguez-Sanz M, Palència L, Borrell C. Foreclosure and health in southern Europe: results from the platform for people affected by mortgages. J Urban Health. 2016;93(2):312–30.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Wainer A, Zabel J. Homeownership and wealth accumulation for low-income households. J Hous Econ. 2020;47:101624.

Article  Google Scholar 

Rohe WM, Van Zandt S, McCarthy G. Home ownership and access to opportunity. Hous Stud. 2002;17(1):51–61.

Article  Google Scholar 

Hajat A, Kaufman JS, Rose KM, Siddiqi A, Thomas JC. Long-term effects of wealth on mortality and self-rated health status. Am J Epidemiol. 2011;173(2):192–200.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Melis G, Gelormino E, Marra G, Ferracin E, Costa G. The effects of the urban built environment on mental health: a cohort study in a large northern Italian city. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015;12(11):14898–915.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beyer K, Kaltenbach A, Szabo A, Bogar S, Nieto F, Malecki K. Exposure to neighborhood green space and mental health: evidence from the survey of the health of Wisconsin. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2014;11(3):3453–72.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mu Y, Yi M, Liu Q. Association of neighborhood recreational facilities and depressive symptoms among Chinese older adults. BMC Geriatr. 2023;23(1):667.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Beyer KMM, Zhou Y, Laud PW, McGinley EL, Yen TWF, Jankowski C, et al. Mortgage lending bias and breast cancer survival among older women in the United States. J Clin Oncol. 2021;39(25):2749–57.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lynch EE, Malcoe LH, Laurent SE, Richardson J, Mitchell BC, Meier HCS. The legacy of structural racism: associations between historic redlining, current mortgage lending, and health. SSM - Popul Health. 2021;14:100793.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Charters TJ, Harper S, Strumpf EC, Subramanian SV, Arcaya M, Nandi A. The effect of metropolitan-area mortgage delinquency on health behaviors, access to health services, and self-rated health in the United States, 2003–2010. Soc Sci Med. 2016;161:74–82.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Houlden V, De Albuquerque JP, Weich S, Jarvis S. Does nature make us happier? A spatial error model of greenspace types and mental wellbeing. Environ Plan B Urban Anal City Sci. 2021;48(4):655–70.

Article  Google Scholar 

Cromley EK, Wilson-Genderson M, Pruchno RA. Neighborhood characteristics and depressive symptoms of older people: local spatial analyses. Soc Sci Med. 2012;75(12):2307–16.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Edlebi J, Mitchell B, Richardson J, Meier H, Chen L, Noppert G, and Gypin L. National neighborhood data archive (NaNDA): Home Mortgage Disclosure Act longitudinal dataset by census tract, United States, 1981–2021. Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research [distributor]. 2024. https://www.icpsr.umich.edu/web/ICPSR/studies/39093/versions/V1. Accessed 28 May 2024.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). PLACES. https://www.cdc.gov/places. Accessed 28 May 2024.

Logan JR, Xu Z, Stults BJ. Interpolating U.S. decennial census tract data from as early as 1970 to 2010: a longitudinal tract database. Prof Geogr. 2014;66(3):412–20.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Mateyka PJ, Mazur CR. Homeownership in the United States: 2005 to 2019. 2021. https://www.census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2021/acs/acsbr-010.pdf. Accessed 30 May 2024.

Mawani FN, Gilmour H. Validation of self-rated mental health. Health Rep. 2010;21(3):61–75.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Asosega KA, Adebanji AO, Abdul IW. Spatial analysis of the prevalence of obesity and overweight among women in Ghana. BMJ Open. 2021;11(1):e041659.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Pinault L, Thomson EM, Christidis T, Colman I, Tjepkema M, van Donkelaar A, et al. The association between ambient air pollution concentrations and psychological distress. Health Rep. 2020;31(7):3–11.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ettman CK, Cohen GH, Galea S. Is wealth associated with depressive symptoms in the United States? Ann Epidemiol. 2020;43:25-31.e1.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Ettman CK, Cohen GH, Vivier PM, Galea S. Savings, home ownership, and depression in low-income US adults. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol. 2021;56(7):1211–9.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hu F. Homeownership and subjective wellbeing in urban China: does owning a house make you happier? Soc Indic Res. 2013;110(3):951–71.

Article  Google Scholar 

Moscone F, Knapp M. Exploring the spatial pattern of mental health expenditure. J Ment Health Policy Econ. 2005;8(4):205–17.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

LeSage J, Pace RK. Introduction to spatial econometrics. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009.