General aspects

For the 173 HSHR in the study region, a total of 215 use reports (UR) were collected, corresponding to 53 plant species from 30 botanical families. The four most frequently reported species were Coffea arabica (18 HSHR), Juniperus sabina (16 HSHR), Arnica montana (12 HSHR) and Matricaria chamomilla (11 HSHR). This corresponded, in part, with the results of the OESS [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43] where Matricaria chamomilla and Arnica montana were used in every study in more than 10 HSHR. In contrast, the DP in Valais used Coffea arabica more frequently and in higher doses than OESS. Compared to OESS 10 plant species were described for the first time for ethnoveterinary use in Switzerland (new-spec-VS, Fig. 4) [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43]. Of these, Juniperus sabina (18 UR) and Quercus pubescens (4 UR) were determined most frequently. In this context, the first description of the use of Juniperus sabina is likely due to the fact that Valais is the only region in Switzerland where Juniperus sabina grows (in the so-called Sefi shrub heath) [7]. This finding underlines the assumption that the locally growing flora has a significant influence on the (medicinal) flora used [44].

Regarding the use within the last year (141 UR; 66%), the frequency of use within the last 5 years (82 UR > 10 times; 38%) and the degree of satisfaction (average of 79.4 mm on the visual analog scale (VAS), Fig. 3), the results in this survey were comparable with those of OESS [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43].

Differences between Upper Valais VS-g and Lower Valais VS-f

VS-g and VS-f are geographically close, but separated by a clear language boundary (Fig. 1). There were some differences between the two different language regions. Variations between linguistically and/or geographically different regions were also found in other regions of Switzerland [20, 21], as well as in four territories of the Catalan language area in Spain [22].

In VS-g almost all farms kept animals, while in the VS-f only half of all farms had animals [24]. In VS-f farms frequently grow special crops (fruits, vegetables, vines), and even the farmers keeping livestock oftentimes produce special crops. These differences may explain the lower ration of VS-f farmers participating in our study. An uneven distribution of livestock within a region, correlating with the cultivation areas of certain crops, has also been observed in other ethnoveterinary studies, for example in Bavaria [45].

A total of 43 plant species reported in this study had been previously described in other ethnoveterinary studies in Switzerland OESS [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43]. Of these 43 species 25 were used in VS-g and were described as well in OESS, while 7 were reported in VS-f and were used also in OESS. The remaining 11 species were described in VS-f, VS-g, and in the OESS (Fig. 4). There is higher correspondence of plant species between VS-g and OESS than between VS-f and OESS. One reason for this could be that the farmers in VS-g had more contact to farmers living in other German-speaking cantons (farmers of OESS), and maybe they exchanged their knowledge on plants. The contact of farmers in VS-f with those in OESS was likely less intense because of the different language. This is in contrast to the findings of Mayer et al. [20] who studied the Italian-speaking cantons of Switzerland and found that the political border with Italy had more influence on the plants used than the linguistic difference. Compared to Mertenat et al. [21] who also investigated French-speaking regions of western Switzerland, a more marked difference was found in Valais between the German and French-speaking regions. Furthermore, the comparison of the French-speaking DP in Valais (VS-f) with the native French speakers in Mertenat et al. [21] did not show any significant similarity with respect to the plants and preparations reported by DP. Thus, there appear no communalities that could be attributed to the mother tongue. When comparing the list of plants in OESS with that of the present investigation, only 10 species were "unique" for the canton Valais. The major part of the mentioned UR was linked to plants which were used in VS-g (45% of all VS-g UR), VS-f (56% of all VS-f UR), as well as in OESS (Fig. 4).

Special findings in Valais compared to OESS

Among the 10 species reported here for the first time Juniperus sabina was by far the most frequently mentioned plant (16 HSHR and 18 UR reported in VS-g). Plant that are only mentioned in one region are usually reported infrequently and with few UR [21]. All plant species from VS-f that were mentioned for the first time in Swiss ethnoveterinary medicine had each only one to two UR, while the other plant species reported for the first time from VS-g also had only one to four UR each. With 18 UR Juniperus sabina is therefore an exception, also in comparison with regional particularities reported in other European ethnoveterinary studies (Schlittenlacher et al. 1–3 UR per “unique” plant species [45], Markovic et al. (1–5 UR) [46]).

Another peculiarity in Valais was that the DP used Coffea arabica significantly more often and in higher concentrations than in OESS. The farmers in our research area prepared Coffea arabica as an infusion and usually in combination with schnaps. The calculated daily dosage was three times higher in average than described in the OESS (Table 5). Ethnoveterinary studies from Bavaria, Austria and Spain also reported the use of Coffea arabica [45, 47, 48]. Coffea arabica has been mainly used to treat gastrointestinal problems and for general strengthening (e.g. after a difficult birth). This is in line with human ethnomedical reports [49]. Further studies, particularly dosage-finding studies and other clinical trials might be useful. However, species-dependent toxicity of caffeine needs to be considered.

Table 5 All values for daily dosage in dry plant equivalent per kg metabolic body weight (g/kg0.75) from reports on single species homemade herbal remedies (HSHR) used in orally administered preparations by different DP in Valais, as well as dosage recommendations from the literature and previous OESS studies

All in all, the information came from 55 persons (45 men and 10 women). In the OESS nearly the same numbers of women and men have participated in the interviews.

Brazilian research group underlines that there is no gender difference in knowledge about herbal substances and preparations (neither local nor global) [50]. A Swiss study from the Napf region [51] showed that men and women in this region have common, similar level of plant knowledge, particularly about herbaceous grass species and woody species. With regard to the influence of the gender-specific division of labor, however, a specialized plant knowledge of men with regard to grasses (which are relevant in relation to livestock farming) and of women with regard to home gardening was clearly visible. However, when interviewing healers and shamans, it seems to be more common to find and interview more men than women in a region, for example Eshetu et al. [52] describes a study in Ethiopia with 27 men and 4 women. Looking at the individual regions of Valais, the distribution in VS-f is similar to that in OESS, with an almost equal gender distribution (40% women and 60% men), whereas among the people who participated in the interviews from VS-g, only 13% were women and 87% men which is more similar to the gender distribution in e.g. Ethiopian studies. A possible bias in our study in Valais could be an informant who generated the majority of participants from the Upper Valais (Fig. 2). This person was closely networked in the agricultural school, which courses are predominantly filled with male participants. Furthermore, an expansion of the search for DPs could possibly have created a better gender balance. However, the interviews were limited in time to the spring months before the work peak on farms during summer. The final reason for this unequal gender distribution remains open.

In Valais the most frequently reported areas of use were in the treatment of the alimentary tract (QA) and dermatological problems (QD). This is consistent with the reports from OESS and the European studies so far [53].

Indication area QA and Leontopodium alpinum (the edelweiss)

Matricaria chamomilla, Camellia sinensis, Coffea arabica, Achillea millefolium, Linum usitatissimum were the most frequently mentioned plants used in the indication area QA. This was in line with reports in the OESS.

A regional particularity in Valais was the use of Leontopodium alpinum (edelweiss). While farmers in VS-g mainly used chamomile and black tea to treat diarrhea in cattle, calves and lambs, farmers in VS-f used infusion of Leontopodium alpinum instead. The use of Leontopodium alpinum has also been reported in other Swiss cantons, but only infrequently [21, 42, 43]. The daily doses of 0.09 to 0.24 g/kg0.75 determined in Valais are consistent with those reported in the other cantons. Other recommended veterinary doses are not available to date. Tannins and flavonoids are the main active ingredients of Leontopodium alpinum. It is a protected species but meanwhile available from cultures. Leontopodium alpinum is described in folk medicine for the treatment of diarrhea, dysentery and fever in humans as well as in livestock [54, 55]. Cultivated Leontopodium alpinum is currently mainly used for cosmetics (anti-aging and sun creams) and in some food preparations [56]. In vitro and few in vivo studies showed anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial and analgesic effects for extracts and isolated compounds, such as leontopodium acids, caffeoylquinic acids, flavonoids, lignans and essential oil. Inhibition of gastrointestinal peristalsis was also reported [57, 58]. These experimental findings corroborate the empirical uses of Leontopodium alpinum in folk medicine [59].

Indication area QD and the use of Arnica montana

The farmers in the canton Valais prepared oils, ointments, tinctures and water extracts and administered these preparations directly on altered and sore skin (58 UR). Calendula officinalis, Arnica montana, Matricaria chamomilla and Malva neglecta were most frequently used, followed by Hypericum perforatum and Peucedanum ostruthium.

In the OESS Arnica montana is well described to treat problems in the category QM [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43]. In the canton Valais several farmers used Arnica montana also to treat inflammations, wounds and injuries of cattle, calves and sheep, as well as for treatments in the category QM. The calculated drug equivalent concentration in the finished product (tinctures and extracts in oil) was higher than described in the OESS (Table 6), but lower than recommended for humans [60]. Human clinical studies showed a significantly lower incidence of postoperative ecchymosis and edema with local application of preparations of Arnica montana [61, 62]. Moreover, it should be considered that medicinal plant monographs explicitly advise against the use of arnica in the case of open wounds, but "only on the intact skin" due to a risk of delayed hypersensitivity reactions [60]. Thus, the use of Arnica montana on open wounds by the farmers in Valais may be problematic. Other plants, such as Calendula officinalis or Matricaria chamomilla, have been proven to be effective in wound care.

Table 6 All values for concentration of medicinal plants in homemade single species homemade herbal remedy reports (HSHR) in preparations for topical use by different DP in Valais, and recommendations from the literature for veterinary and human medicineIndication area QG (Genito urinary system and sex hormones) with Juniperus sabina and Tanacetum vulgare

In Valais Juniperus sabina (savin) and Tanacetum vulgare (tansy) were the most often mentioned plants in the category QG (a total of 28 UR). They were used to treat cattle, goats and sheep.

Juniperus sabina contains essential oil (3–5%), with sabinene, α-pinene, and myrcene as major constituents [63], and non-volatile isoprenoids and lignans [64]. The essential oil has a stimulating effect on muscular smooth fibers in the uterus and intestine, leading to a filling of the blood vessels of the pelvis and a hypertonic contraction of the uterus. The abortive effect of Juniperus sabina has also been demonstrated in mice [65, 66]. Farmers in the Upper Valais prepared an infusion of Juniperus sabina to trigger the afterbirth, or to clean the uterus after birth. An oral daily dosage could be determined. Juniperus sabina has been documented here for the first time in a Swiss ethnoveterinary context. In OESS [20, 21, 32, 41,42,43] two botanically related plant species (Thuja occidentalis and Juniperus communis) are also used to clean the uterus after birth. However, Juniperus sabina is likely more toxic given that the essential oil is highly irritating to mucous membranes and skin [67]. Steiner et al. [68] analyzed five historical books by the veterinarian Carl Ammann-Honegger (1879–1960) who also described the use of Juniperus sabina for the treatment of uterine disorders, infertility, and for general birth preparation and obstetrics. The (still current) use of Juniperus sabina in Valais is therefore highly interesting from a historical point of view, but questionable due to its potential toxicity.

In Valais, tea made from Tanacetum vulgare was also used as an oral, and in one case as an intravaginal/ intrauterine treatment to trigger the afterbirth, or to clean the uterus after birth and to prepare for the next pregnancy. In the other Swiss cantons Tanacetum vulgare was not reported for this indication. Disler et al. described the external use of tea from Tanacetum vulgare to treat infestation of mites and lice in cattle [32]. Tanacetum vulgare contains essential oil and shows in vitro antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial properties [69]. In human folk medicine tea from Tanacetum vulgare has been used as an anthelminthic, carminative, antispasmodic, tonic, antidiabetic and diuretic [70]. The oral administration of these plants to prevent or treat or complement the treatment of postpartum disorders is interesting, especially as antibiotics are often used instead. However, further studies are needed regarding the potential toxicity of these plants.