Martin JA, Hamilton BE, Osterman M. Births in the United States, 2020. NCHS Data Brief. 2021;418:1–8.

Google Scholar 

Manuck TA. Racial and ethnic differences in preterm birth: a complex, multifactorial problem. Semin Perinatol. 2017;41(8):511–8.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Giurgescu C, Misra DP, Slaughter-Acey JC, Gillespie SL, Nowak AL, Dove-Medows E, Engeland CG, Zenk SN, Lydic TA, Sealy-Jefferson S, Ford J, Drury S, Stemmer P. Neighborhoods, racism, stress, and preterm birth among African American women: a review. West J Nurs Res. 2021:1939459211041165. https://doi.org/10.1177/01939459211041165.

Alhusen JL, Bower KM, Epstein E, Sharps P. Racial discrimination and adverse birth outcomes: an integrative review. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2016;61(6):707–20. https://doi.org/10.1111/jmwh.12490[doi].

Mendez DD, Hogan VK, Culhane JF. Institutional racism, neighborhood factors, stress, and preterm birth. Ethn Health. 2014;19(5):479–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13557858.2013.846300[doi].

Jones CP. Levels of racism: a theoretic framework and a gardener’s tale. Am J Public Health. 2000;90(8):1212–5. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.90.8.1212[doi].

Braveman P, Dominguez TP, Burke W, Dolan SM, Stevenson DK, Jackson FM, et al. Explaining the Black-White disparity in preterm birth: a consensus statement from a multi-disciplinary scientific work group convened by the March of Dimes. 2021;3. https://doi.org/10.3389/frph.2021.684207.

Shiono PH, Rauh VA, Park M, Lederman SA, Zuskar D. Ethnic differences in birthweight: the role of lifestyle and other factors. Am J Public Health. 1997;87(5):787–93. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.87.5.787.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Murrell NL, Smith R, Gill G, Oxley G. Racism and health care access: a dialogue with childbearing women. Health Care Women Int. 1996;17(2):149–59. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399339609516229.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Krieger N. Racial and gender discrimination: risk factors for high blood pressure? Soc Sci Med. (1982). 1990;30(12):1273–81.

Forman TA, Williams, DR, Jackson JS, Gardner C. Race, place, and discrimination. In: Perspectives on Social Problems. JAI Press; 1997. p. 9: 231–61. https://scholar.harvard.edu/davidrwilliams/dwilliam/publications/race-place-and-discrimination.

Giurgescu C, McFarlin BL, Lomax J, Craddock C, Albrecht A. Racial discrimination and the black-white gap in adverse birth outcomes: a review. J Midwifery Womens Health. 2011;56(4):362–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1542-2011.2011.00034.x.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Balascio P, Moore M, Gongalla M, Regan A, Ha S, Taylor BD, et al. Measures of racism and discrimination in preterm birth studies. Obstet Gynecol. 2023;141(1):69–83. https://doi.org/10.1097/aog.0000000000005023.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mehra R, Boyd LM, Ickovics JR. Racial residential segregation and adverse birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med. 2017;191:237–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.09.018.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Alang S, McAlpine D, McCreedy E, Hardeman R. Police brutality and Black health: setting the agenda for public health scholars. Am J Public Health. 2017;107(5):662–5. https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.2017.303691.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Goin DE, Gomez AM, Farkas K, Duarte C, Karasek D, Chambers BD, et al. Occurrence of fatal police violence during pregnancy and hazard of preterm birth in California. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2021;35(4):469–78. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppe.12753.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sealy-Jefferson S, Butler B, Chettri S, Elmi H, Stevens A, Bosah C, et al. Neighborhood evictions, marital/cohabiting status, and preterm birth among African American women. Ethn Dis. 2021;31(2):197–204. https://doi.org/10.18865/ed.31.2.197.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Sealy-Jefferson S, Butler B, Price-Spratlen T, Dailey RK, Misra DP. Neighborhood-level mass incarceration and future preterm birth risk among African American women. J Urban Health. 2020;97(2):271–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00426-w.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Chantarat T, Van Riper DC, Hardeman RR. Multidimensional structural racism predicts birth outcomes for Black and White Minnesotans. Health Serv Res. 2022;57(3):448–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.13976.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Dyer Z, Alcusky MJ, Galea S, Ash A. Measuring the enduring imprint of structural racism on american neighborhoods. Health Aff (Millwood). 2023;42(10):1374–82. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2023.00659.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Haas DM, Parker CB, Wing DA, Parry S, Grobman WA, Mercer BM, et al. A description of the methods of the Nulliparous Pregnancy Outcomes Study: monitoring mothers-to-be (nuMoM2b). Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2015;212(4):539.e1–.e24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajog.2015.01.019

Krieger N, Smith K, Naishadham D, Hartman C, Barbeau EM. Experiences of discrimination: validity and reliability of a self-report measure for population health research on racism and health. Soc Sci Med (1982). 2005;61(7):1576–96.

Krieger N. Discrimination and health inequities. International journal of health services: planning, administration, evaluation. 2014;44(4):643–710. https://doi.org/10.2190/HS.44.4.b

Paradies Y, Ben J, Denson N, Elias A, Priest N, Pieterse A, et al. Racism as a determinant of health: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS ONE. 2015;10(9):e0138511. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0138511[doi].

Williams DR, Lawrence JA, Davis BA. Racism and health: evidence and needed research. Annu Rev Public Health. 2019;40:105–25. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-publhealth-040218-043750[doi].

Borrell LN, Kiefe CI, Williams DR, Diez-Roux AV, Gordon-Larsen P. Self-reported health, perceived racial discrimination, and skin color in African Americans in the CARDIA study. Soc Sci Med (1982). 2006;63(6):1415–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2006.04.008.

Krieger N, Feldman JM, Waterman PD, Chen JT, Coull BA, Hemenway D. Local residential segregation matters: stronger association of census tract compared to conventional city-level measures with fatal and non-fatal assaults (total and firearm related), using the index of concentration at the extremes (ICE) for racial, economic, and racialized economic segregation, Massachusetts (US), 1995–2010. J Urban Health. 2017;94(2):244–58. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-016-0116-z

Massey DS. Sphere of influence: the social ecology of racial and class inequality. New York: Russell Sage Foundation; 2014.

Google Scholar 

United States Census Bureau. 2010 Census data 2010. Available from: https://data.census.gov/cedsci/table?q=United%20States. Accessed 1 Dec 2023.

United States Census Bureau PD. 2014 American community survey single year estimates 2015. Available from: https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-kits/2015/acs_oneyear.html.  Accessed 1 Dec 2023.

Dixon WJ, Yuen KK. Trimming and winsorization: a review. Statistische Hefte. 1974;15:157–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02922904.

Article  Google Scholar 

American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Prelabor rupture of membranes: aCOG practice bulletin, number 217. Obstet Gynecol. 2020;135(3):e80–97. https://doi.org/10.1097/aog.0000000000003700.PubMedPMID:00006250-202003000-00047.

Article  Google Scholar 

Chambers BD, Arabia SE, Arega HA, Altman MR, Berkowitz R, Feuer SK, et al. Exposures to structural racism and racial discrimination among pregnant and early post-partum Black women living in Oakland, California. Stress Health. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2922[doi].

Shrimali BP, Pearl M, Karasek D, Reid C, Abrams B, Mujahid M. Neighborhood privilege, preterm delivery, and related racial/ethnic disparities: an intergenerational application of the index of concentration at the extremes. Am J Epidemiol. 2020;189(5):412–21. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwz279.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Grobman WA, Parker CB, Willinger M, Wing DA, Silver RM, Wapner RJ, et al. Racial disparities in adverse pregnancy outcomes and psychosocial stress. Obstet Gynecol. 2018;131(2):328–35. https://doi.org/10.1097/aog.0000000000002441.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

MacDorman MF. Race and ethnic disparities in fetal mortality, preterm birth, and infant mortality in the United States: an overview. Semin Perinatol. 2011;35(4):200–8. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.semperi.2011.02.017[doi].

van Daalen KR, Kaiser J, Kebede S, Cipriano G, Maimouni H, Olumese E, et al. Racial discrimination and adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ Glob Health. 2022;7(8). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2022-009227

Love C, David RJ, Rankin KM, Collins JW Jr. Exploring weathering: effects of lifelong economic environment and maternal age on low birth weight, small for gestational age, and preterm birth in African-American and white women. Am J Epidemiol. 2010;172(2):127–34. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwq109.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hodgson S, Lurz PW, Shirley MD, Bythell M, Rankin J. Exposure misclassification due to residential mobility during pregnancy. Int J Hyg Environ Health. 2015;218(4):414–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2015.03.007.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Miller A, Siffel C, Correa A. Residential mobility during pregnancy: patterns and correlates. Matern Child Health J. 2010;14(4):625–34. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-009-0492-z.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Saadeh FB, Clark MA, Rogers ML, Linkletter CD, Phipps MG, Padbury JF, et al. Pregnant and moving: understanding residential mobility during pregnancy and in the first year of life using a prospective birth cohort. Matern Child Health J. 2013;17(2):330–43. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-012-0978-y.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar