NCD Risk Factor Collaboration (NCD-RisC). Worldwide trends in body-mass index, underweight, overweight, and obesity from 1975 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 2416 population-based measurement studies in 128·9 million children, adolescents, and adults. Lancet. 2017;390:2627–42.

Skinner AC, Ravanbakht SN, Skelton JA, Perrin EM, Armstrong SC. Prevalence of obesity and severe obesity in US children, 1999-2016. Pediatrics. 2018;141:e20173459.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Woolford SJ, Sidell M, Li X, Else V, Young DR, Resnicow K, et al. Changes in body mass index among children and adolescents during the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA. 2021;326:1434–6.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Lartey ST, Jayawardene WP, Dickinson SL, Chen X, Gletsu-Miller N, Lohrmann DK. Evaluation of unintended consequences of COVID-19 pandemic restrictions and obesity prevalence among youths. JAMA Netw Open. 2023;6:e2323596.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Andes LJ, Cheng YJ, Rolka DB, Gregg EW, Imperatore G. Prevalence of prediabetes among adolescents and young adults in the United States, 2005-16. JAMA Pediatr. 2020;174:e194498.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mann JP, Valenti L, Scorletti E, Byrne CD, Nobili V. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease in children. Semin Liver Dis. 2018;38:1–13.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Mathew JL, Narang I. Sleeping too close together: obesity and obstructive sleep apnea in childhood and adolescence. Paediatr Respir Rev. 2014;15:211–8.

PubMed  Google Scholar 

Griffiths LJ, Parsons TJ, Hill AJ. Self-esteem and quality of life in obese children and adolescents: a systematic review. Int J Pediatr Obes. 2010;5:282–304.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Guo SS, Wu W, Chumlea WC, Roche AF. Predicting overweight and obesity in adulthood from body mass index values in childhood and adolescence. Am J Clin Nutr. 2002;76:653–8.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Freedman DS, Khan LK, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Srinivasan SR, Berenson GS. The relation of childhood BMI to adult adiposity: the Bogalusa Heart Study. Pediatrics. 2005;115:22–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ryder JR, Jacobs DR Jr, Sinaiko AR, Kornblum AP, Steinberger J. Longitudinal changes in weight status from childhood and adolescence to adulthood. J Pediatr. 2019;214:187–92.e2.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Barlow SE. Expert committee recommendations regarding the prevention, assessment, and treatment of child and adolescent overweight and obesity: summary report. Pediatrics. 2007;120:S164–92.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

McDonagh MS, Selph S, Ozpinar A, Foley C. Systematic review of the benefits and risks of metformin in treating obesity in children aged 18 years and younger. JAMA Pediatr. 2014;168:178–84.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kirk S, Armstrong S, King E, Trapp C, Grow M, Tucker J, et al. Establishment of the Pediatric Obesity Weight Evaluation Registry: a national research collaborative for identifying the optimal assessment and treatment of pediatric obesity. Child Obes. 2016;13:9–17.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ryder JR, Kaizer A, Rudser KD, Gross A, Kelly AS, Fox CK. Effect of phentermine on weight reduction in a pediatric weight management clinic. Int J Obes. 2017;41:90–3.

Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Fox CK, Marlatt KL, Rudser KD, Kelly AS. Topiramate for weight reduction in adolescents with severe obesity. Clin Pediatr. 2015;54:6.

Article  Google Scholar 

Borzutzky C, King E, Fox CK, Stratbucker W, Tucker J, Yee JK, et al. Trends in prescribing anti-obesity pharmacotherapy for paediatric weight management: data from the POWER work group. Pediatr Obes. 2020;16:e12701.

Kumar S, King EC, Christison AL, Kelly AS, Ariza AJ, Borzutzky C, et al. Health outcomes of youth in clinical pediatric weight management programs in POWER. J Pediatr. 2019;208:57–65.e4.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Johnston CA, Tyler C, Palcic JL, Stansberry SA, Gallagher MR, Foreyt JP. Smaller weight changes in standardized body mass index in response to treatment as weight classification increases. J Pediatr. 2011;158:624–7.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Danielsson P, Kowalski J, Ekblom O, Marcus C. Response of severely obese children and adolescents to behavioral treatment. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2012;166:1103–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kalarchian MA, Levine MD, Arslanian SA, Ewing LJ, Houck PR, Cheng Y, et al. Family-based treatment of severe pediatric obesity: randomized, controlled trial. Pediatrics. 2009;124:1060–8.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Levine MD, Ringham RM, Kalarchian MA, Wisniewski L, Marcus MD. Is family-based behavioral weight control appropriate for severe pediatric obesity? Int J Eat Disord. 2001;30:318–28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Grossman DC, Bibbins-Domingo K, Curry SJ, Barry MJ, Davidson KW, Doubeni CA, et al. Screening for obesity in children and adolescents: us preventive services task force recommendation statement. JAMA. 2017;317:2417–26.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

O’Connor EA, Evans CV, Burda BU, Walsh ES, Eder M, Lozano P. Screening for obesity and intervention for weight management in children and adolescents: evidence report and systematic review for the us preventive services task force. JAMA. 2017;317:2427–44.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Tsai WS, Inge TH, Burd RS. Bariatric surgery in adolescents: recent national trends in use and in-hospital outcome. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2007;161:217–21.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Campbell EG, Alasmar A, Lawrence R, Kurpius-Brock M, DeCamp M, Kovar A, et al. Barriers to metabolic bariatric surgery in adolescents: results of a qualitative study. Surg Obes Relat Dis. 2022;18:794–802.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Hampl SE, Hassink SG, Skinner AC, Armstrong SC, Barlow SE, Bolling CF, et al. Clinical practice guideline for the evaluation and treatment of children and adolescents with obesity. Pediatrics. 2023;151:e2022060640.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Drucker DJ. GLP-1 physiology informs the pharmacotherapy of obesity. Mol Metab. 2022;57:101351.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

van Bloemendaal L, Ten Kulve JS, la Fleur SE, Ijzerman RG, Diamant M. Effects of glucagon-like peptide 1 on appetite and body weight: focus on the CNS. J Endocrinol. 2014;221:T1–16.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Müller TD, Finan B, Bloom SR, D’Alessio D, Drucker DJ, Flatt PR, et al. Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1). Mol Metab. 2019;30:72–130.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kelly AS, Rudser KD, Nathan BM, Fox CK, Metzig AM, Coombes BJ, et al. The effect of glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist therapy on body mass index in adolescents with severe obesity: a randomized, placebo-controlled, clinical trial. JAMA Pediatr. 2013;167:355–60.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Weghuber D, Forslund A, Ahlström H, Alderborn A, Bergström K, Brunner S, et al. A 6-month randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of weekly exenatide in adolescents with obesity. Pediatr Obes. 2020;15:e12624.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fox CK, Clark JM, Rudser KD, Ryder JR, Gross AC, Nathan BM, et al. Exenatide for weight-loss maintenance in adolescents with severe obesity: A randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Obesity. 2022;30:1105–15.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Chanoine JP, Hampl S, Jensen C, Boldrin M, Hauptman J. Effect of orlistat on weight and body composition in obese adolescents: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2005;293:2873–83.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kelly AS, Auerbach P, Barrientos-Perez M, Gies I, Hale PM, Marcus C, et al. A randomized, controlled trial of liraglutide for adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2020;382:2117–28.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bensignor MO, Bramante CT, Bomberg EM, Fox CK, Hale PM, Kelly AS, et al. Evaluating potential predictors of weight loss response to liraglutide in adolescents with obesity: a post hoc analysis of the randomized, placebo-controlled SCALE teens trial. Pediatr Obes. 2023;18:e13061.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Weghuber D, Barrett T, Barrientos-Pérez M, Gies I, Hesse D, Jeppesen OK, et al. Once-weekly semaglutide in adolescents with obesity. N Engl J Med. 2022;387:2245–57.

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Kelly AS, Arslanian S, Hesse D, Iversen AT, Körner A, Schmidt S, et al. Reducing BMI below the obesity threshold in adolescents treated with once-weekly subcutaneous semaglutide 2.4 mg. Obesity. 2023;31:2139–49.

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Inge TH, Courcoulas AP, Jenkins TM, Michalsky MP, Brandt ML, Xanthakos SA, et al. Five-year outcomes of gastric bypass in adolescents as compared with adults. N Engl J Med. 2019;380:2136–45.

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Borzutzky C, King E, Fox CK, Stratbucker W, Tucker J, Yee JK, et al. Trends in prescribing anti-obesity pharmacotherapy for paediatric weight management: data from the POWER work group. Pediatr Obes. 2021;16:e12701.

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Berman C, Naguib M, Hegedus E, Vidmar AP. Topiramate for weight management in children with severe obesity. Child Obes. 2023;19:219–25.