Estimated number of prevalent cases (5-year) in 2020, Europe, both sexes, all ages (2020) Available from: https://gco.iarc.fr/today/online-analysis-pie?v=2020&mode=cancer&mode_population=continents&population=900&populations=900&key=total&sex=0&cancer=39&type=2&statistic=5&prevalence=1&population_group=0&ages_group%5B%5D=0&ages_group%5B%5D=17&nb_items=7&group_cancer=1&include_nmsc=1&include_nmsc_other=1&half_pie=0&donut=0. [Cited 04–07–2023]

Van Cutsem E, Cervantes A, Nordlinger B, Arnold D, on behalf of the ESMO Guidelines Working Group* (2014) Metastatic colorectal cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up. Anna Oncol 25:iii1–iii9

Article  Google Scholar 

van de Velde CJ, Boelens PG, Borras JM et al (2014) EURECCA colorectal: multidisciplinary management: European consensus conference colon & rectum. Eur J Cancer 50(1):1.e-e34

Google Scholar 

Beets-Tan RGH, Lambregts DMJ, Maas M et al (2018) Magnetic resonance imaging for clinical management of rectal cancer: updated recommendations from the 2016 European Society of Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Radiology (ESGAR) consensus meeting. Eur Radiol 28(4):1465–1475

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Santiago I, Rodrigues B, Barata M et al (2021) Re-staging and follow-up of rectal cancer patients with MR imaging when “Watch-and-Wait” is an option: a practical guide. Insights Imaging 12(1):114

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Brown G, Radcliffe AG, Newcombe RG, Dallimore NS, Bourne MW, Williams GT (2003) Preoperative assessment of prognostic factors in rectal cancer using high-resolution magnetic resonance imaging. Br J Surg 90(3):355–364

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Blomqvist L, Glimelius B (2008) The ‘good’, the ‘bad’, and the ‘ugly’ rectal cancers. Acta Oncol 47:5–8 Norway

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Beets-Tan RG, Lambregts DM, Maas M et al (2013) Magnetic resonance imaging for the clinical management of rectal cancer patients: recommendations from the 2012 European Society of Gastrointestinal and Abdominal Radiology (ESGAR) consensus meeting. Eur Radiol 23(9):2522–2531

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bahadoer RR, Dijkstra EA, van Etten B et al (2021) Short-course radiotherapy followed by chemotherapy before total mesorectal excision (TME) versus preoperative chemoradiotherapy, TME, and optional adjuvant chemotherapy in locally advanced rectal cancer (RAPIDO): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol 22(1):29–42

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Bahadoer RR (2020) RAPIDO supplementary and protocol

Google Scholar 

Balyasnikova S, Brown G (2016) Optimal imaging strategies for rectal cancer staging and ongoing management. Curr Treat Options Oncol 17(6):32

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Horvat N, Carlos Tavares Rocha C, Clemente Oliveira B, Petkovska I, Gollub MJ (2019) MRI of rectal cancer: tumor staging, imaging techniques, and management. Radiographics 39(2):367–87

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Gormly KL, Coscia C, Wells T et al (2016) MRI rectal cancer in Australia and New Zealand: an audit from the PETACC-6 trial. J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol 60(5):607–615

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Suzuki C, Torkzad MR, Tanaka S et al (2008) The importance of rectal cancer MRI protocols on interpretation accuracy. World J Surg Oncol 6:89

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Srisajjakul S, Prapaisilp P, Bangchokdee S (2018) Pitfalls in MRI of rectal cancer: what radiologists need to know and avoid. Clin Imaging 50:130–140

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee JH, Jang HS, Kim JG et al (2014) Prediction of pathologic staging with magnetic resonance imaging after preoperative chemoradiotherapy in rectal cancer: pooled analysis of KROG 10–01 and 11–02. Radiother Oncol 113(1):18–23

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Ale Ali H, Kirsch R, Razaz S et al (2019) Extramural venous invasion in rectal cancer: overview of imaging, histopathology, and clinical implications. Abdom Radiol (NY) 44(1):1–10

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kapiteijn E, Marijnen CAM, Nagtegaal ID et al (2001) Preoperative radiotherapy combined with total mesorectal excision for resectable rectal cancer. N Engl J Med 345(9):638–646

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lambregts DMJ, Bogveradze N, Blomqvist LK et al (2022) Current controversies in TNM for the radiological staging of rectal cancer and how to deal with them: results of a global online survey and multidisciplinary expert consensus. Eur Radiol 32(7):4991–5003

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Group TMs (2006) Diagnostic accuracy of preoperative magnetic resonance imaging in predicting curative resection of rectal cancer: prospective observational study. BMJ 333(7572):779

Article  Google Scholar 

Beets-Tan RG, Beets GL (2011) Local staging of rectal cancer: a review of imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging 33(5):1012–1019

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Kirisits C, Federico M, Nkiwane K et al (2015) Quality assurance in MR image guided adaptive brachytherapy for cervical cancer: final results of the EMBRACE study dummy run. Radiother Oncol 117(3):548–554

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Widder J, Sedlmayer F, Stanek C, Pötter R (2000) Quality assurance in preoperative radiotherapy of rectal cancer: evaluation of a pre-trial dummy-run. Radiother Oncol 56(3):341–347

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Fernández-Martos C, Pericay C, Aparicio J et al (2010) Phase II, randomized study of concomitant chemoradiotherapy followed by surgery and adjuvant capecitabine plus oxaliplatin (CAPOX) compared with induction CAPOX followed by concomitant chemoradiotherapy and surgery in magnetic resonance imaging-defined, locally advanced rectal cancer: Grupo cancer de recto 3 study. J Clin Oncol 28(5):859–865

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Dewdney A, Cunningham D, Tabernero J et al (2012) Multicenter randomized phase II clinical trial comparing neoadjuvant oxaliplatin, capecitabine, and preoperative radiotherapy with or without cetuximab followed by total mesorectal excision in patients with high-risk rectal cancer (EXPERT-C). J Clin Oncol 30(14):1620–1627

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Jakobsen A, Ploen J, Vuong T, Appelt A, Lindebjerg J, Rafaelsen SR (2012) Dose-effect relationship in chemoradiotherapy for locally advanced rectal cancer: a randomized trial comparing two radiation doses. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 84(4):949–954

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Smith JJ, Chow OS, Gollub MJ et al (2015) Organ Preservation in Rectal Adenocarcinoma: a phase II randomized controlled trial evaluating 3-year disease-free survival in patients with locally advanced rectal cancer treated with chemoradiation plus induction or consolidation chemotherapy, and total mesorectal excision or nonoperative management. BMC Cancer 15:767

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Achiam MP, Løgager V, Lund Rasmussen V et al (2015) Perioperative Colonic Evaluation in Patients with Rectal Cancer; MR Colonography Versus Standard Care. Acad Radiol 22(12):1522–1528

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Deijen CL, Velthuis S, Tsai A et al (2016) COLOR III: a multicentre randomised clinical trial comparing transanal TME versus laparoscopic TME for mid and low rectal cancer. Surg Endosc 30(8):3210–3215

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Glynne-Jones R, Hava N, Goh V et al (2015) Bevacizumab and Combination Chemotherapy in rectal cancer Until Surgery (BACCHUS): a phase II, multicentre, open-label, randomised study of neoadjuvant chemotherapy alone in patients with high-risk cancer of the rectum. BMC Cancer 15:764

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Burbach JP, Verkooijen HM, Intven M et al (2015) RandomizEd controlled trial for pre-operAtive dose-escaLation BOOST in locally advanced rectal cancer (RECTAL BOOST study): study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. Trials 16:58

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Nahas SC, Rizkallah Nahas CS, Sparapan Marques CF et al (2016) Pathologic complete response in rectal cancer: can we detect it? Lessons learned from a proposed randomized trial of watch-and-wait treatment of rectal cancer. Dis Colon Rectum 59(4):255–263

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Haddad P, Miraie M, Farhan F et al (2017) Addition of oxaliplatin to neoadjuvant radiochemotherapy in MRI-defined T3, T4 or N+ rectal cancer: a randomized clinical trial. Asia Pac J Clin Oncol 13(6):416–422

Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Singh K, Gupta MK, Seam RK, Gupta M (2017) A prospective randomized trial comparing capecitabine-based chemoradiotherapy with 5-FU-based chemoradiotherapy in neoadjuvant setting in locally advanced carcinoma rectum. Indian J Cancer 54(1):347–351

Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Lee JL, Lim SB, Yu CS et al (2019) Local excision in mid-to-low rectal cancer patients who revealed clinically total or near-total regression after preoperative chemoradiotherapy; a proposed trial. BMC Cancer 19(1):404

Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Jameson MB, Gormly K, Espinoza D et al (2019) SPAR - a randomised, placebo-controlled phase II trial of simvastatin in addition to standard chemotherapy and radiation in preoperative treatment for rectal cancer: an AGITG clinical trial. BMC Cancer 19(1):1229

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Deng Y, Chi P, Lan P et al (2019) Neoadjuvant Modified FOLFOX6 With or Without Radiation Versus Fluorouracil Plus Radiation for Locally Advanced Rectal Cancer: Final Results of the Chinese FOWARC Trial. J Clin Oncol 37(34):3223–3233

Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central