Volume 143, August 2025, 104623Author links open overlay panel, , Highlights•

Gender agreement attraction is attested in Czech and Slovak comprehension.

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Only case-syncretic nouns attract in ungrammatical conditions.

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No differences between grammatical conditions were observed.

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Case syncretism is crucial for the emergence of attraction effects.

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Cue-based retrieval cannot fully account for the observed processing patterns.

Abstract

Attraction effects in the comprehension of ungrammatical sentences have long been observed for number and gender agreement across many languages. These prolific findings have led researchers to claim that attraction effects are universal. However, recent evidence from Czech has shown that number agreement attraction is either non-existent in the language or negligible in size. We aimed to test whether this is also the case for gender agreement and to explore the role of case syncretism in the emergence of attraction effects. Crucially, we evaluated the predictions of the cue-based retrieval model in light of the resulting estimates. Across three self-paced reading experiments, two on Czech (N1 = 172, N3 = 255) and the other on the closely related Slovak (N2 = 119), gender attraction in ungrammatical sentences was attested only with case-syncretic attractors. No differences between grammatical conditions were found. Based on computational modelling estimates, we argue that these empirical results contradict the predictions of the classic cue-based retrieval model but are compatible with the repair-by-retrieval account.

Keywords

Gender agreement

Agreement attraction

Sentence processing

Czech

Slovak

Cue-based retrieval

Data availabilityAll the stimuli and filler sentences, the experimental code used to present the stimuli, the anonymised data collected, as well as the analysis and computational modelling scripts have been made publicly available on OSF under https://osf.io/h8bfw/.

© 2025 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc.