The genus Neisseria includes two major human pathogens: N. meningitidiscausing bacterial meningitis/septicemia and N. gonorrhoeae causing gonorrhoea. Mathematical models have been used to simulate their transmission and control strategies, and the recent observation of a meningitis vaccine being partially effective against gonorrhoea has led to an increased modeling interest. Here we conducted a systematic review of the literature, focusing on studies that model vaccination strategies against Neisseria incidence and antimicrobial resistance. Using journal, preprint, and grey literature repositories, we identified 52 studies that we reviewed for validity, model approaches and assumptions. Most studies showed a good quality of evidence, and the variety of approaches along with their different modeling angles, was assuring especially for gonorrhoea studies. We identified options for future research, including the combination of both meningococcal and gonococcal infections in studies to have better estimates for vaccine benefits, and the spill over of gonorrhoea infections from the heterosexual to the MSM community and vice versa. Cost-effectiveness studies looking at at-risk and the wider populations can then be used to inform vaccine policies on gonorrhoea, as they have for meningococcal disease.

RB performs contract research on behalf of UKHSA for GSK, Pfizer, and Sanofi. RV has received research funding for PHE from GSK and Gilead Sciences in the past. All other authors report there are no competing interests to declare.

This work was supported by the Wellcome Trust under grant 'Impact of vaccines on antimicrobial resistance' [219792/Z/19/Z]. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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